order

* small changes from new codegen

* shrink/flatten

.github/workflows/test.yml

@@ -133,46 +133,26 @@ jobs:
       run: SKIP_SLOW_TEST=1 DEV=PYTHON python3 -m pytest -n=auto test/backend/test_dtype.py test/backend/test_dtype_alu.py test/backend/test_ops.py test/backend/test_uops.py test/backend/test_symbolic_ops.py test/backend/test_renderer_failures.py::TestRendererFailures --durations=20
     - name: Test IMAGE support
       run: IMAGE=1 DEV=PYTHON python3 test/backend/test_ops.py TestOps.test_gemm TestOps.test_simple_conv2d
-    - name: Test emulated METAL tensor cores
+    - name: Test emulated tensor cores
       env:
-        DEV: 'PYTHON::METAL'
+        DEBUG: 2
+        N: 64
+        CNT: 1
+        SHOULD_USE_TC: 1
       run: |
-        DEBUG=2 python3 test/backend/test_ops.py TestOps.test_big_gemm
-        python3 -m pytest -nauto test/opt/test_tensor_cores.py
-    - name: Test emulated AMD tensor cores
-      env:
-        DEV: 'PYTHON::gfx1100'
+        parallel -k --link --tagstring '[{1}]' '{2} python3 ./extra/gemm/simple_matmul.py' \
+          ::: metal gfx950 gfx1100 gfx1100_acchalf gfx1201 gfx1201_acchalf sm_75 sm_80_half sm_80_tf32 \
+          ::: 'DEV=PYTHON::METAL' 'DEV=PYTHON::gfx950 HALF=1 ACC_HALF=0' \
+              'DEV=PYTHON::gfx1100 HALF=1 ACC_HALF=0' 'DEV=PYTHON::gfx1100 HALF=1 ACC_HALF=1 ATOL=1e-3' \
+              'DEV=PYTHON::gfx1201 HALF=1 ACC_HALF=0' 'DEV=PYTHON::gfx1201 HALF=1 ACC_HALF=1 ATOL=1e-3' \
+              'DEV=PYTHON::sm_75 HALF=1' 'DEV=PYTHON::sm_80 HALF=1' 'DEV=PYTHON::sm_80 ALLOW_TF32=1'
+    - name: Run additional tensor core tests
       run: |
-        DEBUG=2 N=16 HALF=1 ACC_HALF=0 python3 ./extra/gemm/simple_matmul.py
-        DEBUG=2 N=64 HALF=1 ACC_HALF=0 python3 ./extra/gemm/simple_matmul.py
-        DEBUG=2 N=16 HALF=1 ACC_HALF=1 ATOL=1e-3 python3 ./extra/gemm/simple_matmul.py
-        DEBUG=2 N=64 HALF=1 ACC_HALF=1 ATOL=1e-3 python3 ./extra/gemm/simple_matmul.py
-        python3 -m pytest -nauto test/opt/test_tensor_cores.py
-    - name: Test emulated AMD MFMA tensor cores
-      env:
-        DEV: 'PYTHON::gfx950'
-      run: |
-        DEBUG=2 N=64 HALF=1 ACC_HALF=0 python3 ./extra/gemm/simple_matmul.py
-        python3 -m pytest -nauto test/opt/test_tensor_cores.py
-    - name: Test emulated AMD RDNA4 tensor cores
-      env:
-        DEV: 'PYTHON::gfx1201'
-      run: |
-        DEBUG=2 N=16 HALF=1 ACC_HALF=0 python3 ./extra/gemm/simple_matmul.py
-        DEBUG=2 N=64 HALF=1 ACC_HALF=0 python3 ./extra/gemm/simple_matmul.py
-        DEBUG=2 N=16 HALF=1 ACC_HALF=1 ATOL=1e-3 python3 ./extra/gemm/simple_matmul.py
-        DEBUG=2 N=64 HALF=1 ACC_HALF=1 ATOL=1e-3 python3 ./extra/gemm/simple_matmul.py
-        python3 -m pytest -nauto test/opt/test_tensor_cores.py
-    - name: Test emulated CUDA tensor cores
-      run: |
-        DEBUG=2 DEV=PYTHON::sm_80 python3 test/backend/test_ops.py TestOps.test_gemm_fp16
-        DEBUG=2 ALLOW_TF32=1 DEV=PYTHON::sm_80 python3 test/backend/test_ops.py TestOps.test_gemm
-        DEBUG=2 DEV=PYTHON::sm_75 python3 test/backend/test_ops.py TestOps.test_gemm_fp16
+        DEV=PYTHON::METAL python3 -m pytest -nauto test/opt/test_tensor_cores.py test/null/test_uops_stats.py::TestUOpsStatsMatmulHalf
+        DEV=PYTHON::gfx1100 python3 -m pytest -nauto test/opt/test_tensor_cores.py test/null/test_uops_stats.py::TestUOpsStatsMatmulHalf
+        DEV=PYTHON::gfx950 python3 -m pytest -nauto test/opt/test_tensor_cores.py
+        DEV=PYTHON::gfx1201 python3 -m pytest -nauto test/opt/test_tensor_cores.py
         ALLOW_TF32=1 DEV=PYTHON::sm_89 python3 -m pytest -nauto test/opt/test_tensor_cores.py
-    - name: Test device flop counts
-      run: |
-        DEBUG=2 DEV=PYTHON::METAL python3 ./test/null/test_uops_stats.py TestUOpsStatsMatmulHalf
-        DEBUG=2 DEV=PYTHON::gfx1100 python3 ./test/null/test_uops_stats.py TestUOpsStatsMatmulHalf
         DEBUG=2 DEV=PYTHON::sm_80 python3 ./test/null/test_uops_stats.py TestUOpsStatsMatmulHalf
 
   linter:
@@ -267,13 +247,6 @@ jobs:
       run: python3 test/external/external_benchmark_schedule.py
     - name: Run process replay tests
       uses: ./.github/actions/process-replay
-    - name: Regen dataset on test_tiny
-      run: |
-        test/external/process_replay/reset.py
-        CAPTURE_PROCESS_REPLAY=1 python test/test_tiny.py TestTiny.test_plus
-        python extra/optimization/extract_dataset.py
-        gzip -c /tmp/sops > extra/datasets/sops.gz
-        #DEBUG=1 MIN_ASTS=1 python extra/optimization/get_action_space.py
     - name: Repo line count < 25000 lines
       run: MAX_LINE_COUNT=25000 python sz.py
 
@@ -338,31 +311,6 @@ jobs:
       - name: Run process replay tests
         uses: ./.github/actions/process-replay
 
-  testgpumisc:
-    name: CL Misc tests
-    runs-on: *linux
-    timeout-minutes: 10
-    steps:
-      - name: Checkout Code
-        uses: actions/checkout@v6
-      - name: Setup Environment
-        uses: ./.github/actions/setup-tinygrad
-        with:
-          key: gen-dataset
-          deps: testing
-          opencl: 'true'
-      - name: Generate Dataset
-        run: DEV=CL extra/optimization/generate_dataset.sh
-      - name: Run Kernel Count Test
-        run: DEV=CL python -m pytest -n=auto test/external/external_test_opt.py
-      - name: Run fused optimizer tests
-        run: DEV=CL FUSE_OPTIM=1 python -m pytest -n=auto test/models/test_mnist.py test/backend/test_optim.py -k "not muon"
-      - name: Upload artifact
-        uses: actions/upload-artifact@v7
-        with:
-          name: sops.gz
-          path: /tmp/sops.gz
-
   testopenpilot:
     name: openpilot Compile Tests
     runs-on: *linux

README.md

@@ -72,7 +72,7 @@ As it turns out, 90% of what you need for neural networks are a decent autograd/
 Throw in an optimizer, a data loader, and some compute, and you have all you need.
 
 ```python
-from tinygrad import Tensor, nn
+from tinygrad import Tensor, nn, Context
 
 class LinearNet:
   def __init__(self):
@@ -86,7 +86,7 @@ optim = nn.optim.Adam([model.l1, model.l2], lr=0.001)
 
 x, y = Tensor.rand(4, 1, 28, 28), Tensor([2,4,3,7])  # replace with real mnist dataloader
 
-with Tensor.train():
+with Context(TRAINING=1):
   for i in range(10):
     optim.zero_grad()
     loss = model(x).sparse_categorical_crossentropy(y).backward()

docs/quickstart.md

@@ -165,13 +165,14 @@ from extra.datasets import fetch_mnist
 Now we have everything we need to start training our neural network.
 We will be training for 1000 steps with a batch size of 64.
 
-We use `with Tensor.train()` to set the internal flag `Tensor.training` to `True` during training.
+We use `with Context(TRAINING=1)` to set the internal flag `Tensor.training` to `True` during training.
 Upon exit, the flag is restored to its previous value by the context manager.
 
 ```python
+from tinygrad import Context
 X_train, Y_train, X_test, Y_test = fetch_mnist()
 
-with Tensor.train():
+with Context(TRAINING=1):
   for step in range(1000):
     # random sample a batch
     samp = np.random.randint(0, X_train.shape[0], size=(64))

examples/beautiful_cartpole.py

@@ -1,6 +1,6 @@
 from typing import Tuple
 import time
-from tinygrad import Tensor, TinyJit, nn
+from tinygrad import Tensor, TinyJit, nn, Context
 import gymnasium as gym
 from tinygrad.helpers import trange
 import numpy as np  # TODO: remove numpy import
@@ -55,7 +55,7 @@ if __name__ == "__main__":
 
   @TinyJit
   def train_step(x:Tensor, selected_action:Tensor, reward:Tensor, old_log_dist:Tensor) -> Tuple[Tensor, Tensor, Tensor]:
-    with Tensor.train():
+    with Context(TRAINING=1):
       log_dist, value = model(x)
       action_mask = (selected_action.reshape(-1, 1) == Tensor.arange(log_dist.shape[1]).reshape(1, -1).expand(selected_action.shape[0], -1)).float()
 

examples/beautiful_cifar.py

@@ -122,7 +122,7 @@ if __name__ == "__main__":
     return ret.mul(hyp['opt']['loss_scale_scaler']*loss_batchsize_scaler).sum().div(hyp['opt']['loss_scale_scaler'])
 
   @TinyJit
-  @Tensor.train()
+  @Context(TRAINING=1)
   def train_step(idxs:Tensor) -> Tensor:
     X, Y = X_train[idxs], Y_train[idxs]
     if len(GPUS) > 1:

examples/beautiful_mnist.py

@@ -1,6 +1,6 @@
 # model based off https://medium.com/data-science/going-beyond-99-mnist-handwritten-digits-recognition-cfff96337392
 from typing import Callable
-from tinygrad import Tensor, TinyJit, nn, GlobalCounters, function
+from tinygrad import Tensor, TinyJit, nn, GlobalCounters, function, Context
 from tinygrad.helpers import getenv, colored, trange
 from tinygrad.nn.datasets import mnist
 
@@ -19,7 +19,7 @@ class Model:
   def __call__(self, x:Tensor) -> Tensor: return x.sequential(self.layers)
 
   @TinyJit
-  @Tensor.train()
+  @Context(TRAINING=1)
   def train_step(self, X_train:Tensor, Y_train:Tensor) -> Tensor:
     opt.zero_grad()
     samples = Tensor.randint(getenv("BS", 512), high=X_train.shape[0])

examples/beautiful_mnist_multigpu.py

@@ -1,6 +1,6 @@
 # model based off https://towardsdatascience.com/going-beyond-99-mnist-handwritten-digits-recognition-cfff96337392
 from typing import List, Callable
-from tinygrad import Tensor, TinyJit, nn, GlobalCounters, Device
+from tinygrad import Tensor, TinyJit, nn, GlobalCounters, Device, Context
 from tinygrad.helpers import getenv, colored, trange
 from tinygrad.nn.datasets import mnist
 
@@ -31,7 +31,7 @@ if __name__ == "__main__":
 
   @TinyJit
   def train_step() -> Tensor:
-    with Tensor.train():
+    with Context(TRAINING=1):
       opt.zero_grad()
       samples = Tensor.randint(getenv("BS", 512), high=X_train.shape[0])
       Xt, Yt = X_train[samples].shard_(GPUS, axis=0), Y_train[samples].shard_(GPUS, axis=0)  # we shard the data on axis 0

examples/gradaccum_mnist.py

@@ -1,6 +1,6 @@
 import itertools
 from typing import Callable
-from tinygrad import nn, Tensor, dtypes, Device, TinyJit
+from tinygrad import nn, Tensor, dtypes, Device, TinyJit, Context
 from tinygrad.helpers import getenv, trange, partition
 
 class Model:
@@ -59,7 +59,7 @@ if __name__ == "__main__":
   Tensor.realize(*params, *buffers, *adam_params, loss, grads)
 
   @TinyJit
-  @Tensor.train()
+  @Context(TRAINING=1)
   def microbatch():
     samples = Tensor.randint(BS // ACC_STEPS, high=X_train.shape[0])
     for t in params: t.grad = None

examples/hlb_cifar10.py

@@ -359,7 +359,7 @@ def train_cifar():
   i = 0
   eval_acc_pct = 0.0
   batcher = fetch_batches(X_train, Y_train, BS=BS, is_train=True)
-  with Tensor.train():
+  with Context(TRAINING=1):
     st = time.monotonic()
     while i <= STEPS:
       if i % getenv("EVAL_STEPS", STEPS) == 0 and i > 1 and not getenv("DISABLE_BACKWARD"):

examples/llm.c/train_gpt2.py

@@ -1,7 +1,7 @@
 #!/usr/bin/env python3
 import os, math, time
 import numpy as np
-from tinygrad import Tensor, nn, fetch, Device, TinyJit, GlobalCounters
+from tinygrad import Tensor, nn, fetch, Device, TinyJit, GlobalCounters, Context
 from dataclasses import dataclass
 
 @dataclass
@@ -177,7 +177,7 @@ if __name__ == "__main__":
   if args.gpus > 1: x, y = x.shard(GPUS, axis=0), y.shard(GPUS, axis=0)
 
   @TinyJit
-  @Tensor.train()
+  @Context(TRAINING=1)
   def step(x:Tensor, y:Tensor) -> Tensor:
     _, loss = model(x, y)
     optimizer.zero_grad()
@@ -204,4 +204,3 @@ if __name__ == "__main__":
     top_k = 40
     y = model.generate(x, max_new_tokens, temperature=temperature, top_k=top_k)
     print(decode(y[0].tolist()))
-

examples/minrf.py

@@ -1,5 +1,5 @@
 # much taken from https://github.com/cloneofsimo/minRF
-from tinygrad import Tensor, nn, GlobalCounters, TinyJit
+from tinygrad import Tensor, nn, GlobalCounters, TinyJit, Context
 from tinygrad.helpers import getenv, trange
 from extra.models.llama import Attention, FeedForward, precompute_freqs_cis
 
@@ -135,7 +135,7 @@ if __name__ == "__main__":
   optimizer = nn.optim.Adam(nn.state.get_parameters(model), lr=5e-4)
 
   @TinyJit
-  @Tensor.train()
+  @Context(TRAINING=1)
   def train_step():
     if getenv("OVERFIT"): samples = Tensor.zeros(getenv("BS", 256), dtype='int')
     else: samples = Tensor.randint(getenv("BS", 256), high=X_train.shape[0])

examples/mlperf/model_eval.py

@@ -358,7 +358,7 @@ def eval_stable_diffusion():
       batch = batch.cat(batch[-1:].expand(bs - unpadded_bs, *batch[-1].shape))
     return batch, unpadded_bs 
 
-  @Tensor.train(mode=False)
+  @Context(TRAINING=0)
   def eval_unet(eval_inputs:list[dict], unet:UNetModel, cond_stage:FrozenOpenClipEmbedder, first_stage:AutoencoderKL,
                 inception:FidInceptionV3, clip:OpenClipEncoder) -> tuple[float, float]:
     # Eval is divided into 5 jits, one per model

examples/mlperf/model_train.py

@@ -2,7 +2,7 @@ import os, time, math, functools, random, contextlib
 from pathlib import Path
 import multiprocessing
 
-from tinygrad import Device, GlobalCounters, Tensor, TinyJit, dtypes
+from tinygrad import Device, GlobalCounters, Tensor, TinyJit, dtypes, Context
 from tinygrad.helpers import getenv, BEAM, WINO, round_up, diskcache_clear, Profiling, profile_marker, DEBUG
 from tinygrad.nn.state import get_parameters, get_state_dict, load_state_dict, safe_load, safe_save
 from tinygrad.nn.optim import LAMB, LARS, SGD, OptimizerGroup, Adam, AdamW
@@ -614,7 +614,7 @@ def train_retinanet():
 
       if getenv("RESET_STEP", 1): _train_step.reset()
 
-      with Tensor.train(mode=False):
+      with Context(TRAINING=0):
         if not RUNMLPERF:
           i, proc = 0, _fake_data_get(EVAL_BS, val=(val:=True))
         else:
@@ -784,7 +784,7 @@ def train_unet3d():
     return x.shard(GPUS, axis=0).realize(), y.shard(GPUS, axis=0), cookie
 
   @TinyJit
-  @Tensor.train()
+  @Context(TRAINING=1)
   def train_step(model, x, y):
     optim.zero_grad()
 
@@ -795,7 +795,7 @@ def train_unet3d():
     optim.step()
     return loss.realize()
 
-  @Tensor.train(mode=False)
+  @Context(TRAINING=0)
   def eval_step(model, x, y):
     y_hat, y = sliding_window_inference(model, x, y, gpus=GPUS)
     y_hat, y = Tensor(y_hat), Tensor(y)
@@ -1490,7 +1490,7 @@ def train_llama3():
     return lr_cpu, grad_norm_cpu
 
   @TinyJit
-  @Tensor.train(False)
+  @Context(TRAINING=0)
   def eval_step(tokens:Tensor):
     if is_dp: tokens = tokens.to(None).shard(device, 0)
     if is_mp: tokens = tokens.shard(device)
@@ -1803,7 +1803,7 @@ if __name__ == "__main__":
   elif getenv("RUNMLPERF"): bench_log_manager = WallTimeEvent(BenchEvent.MLPERF_RUN)
   else: bench_log_manager = contextlib.nullcontext()
 
-  with Tensor.train():
+  with Context(TRAINING=1):
     for m in getenv("MODEL", "resnet,retinanet,unet3d,rnnt,bert,maskrcnn,stable_diffusion").split(","):
       nm = f"train_{m}"
       if nm in globals():

examples/mlperf/models/flat_llama.py

@@ -126,10 +126,8 @@ class FlatTransformer:
 
     # FeedForward
     if SPLIT_W13:
-      if getenv("ZEROS"): w13_raw = Tensor.zeros(2, self.n_layers, hidden_dim, dim)
-      else: w13_raw = Tensor.normal(2, self.n_layers, hidden_dim, dim, mean=0.0, std=0.02)
-      self.w1, s_1 = self.lin_per_layer(dim, hidden_dim, w=w13_raw[0])
-      self.w3, s_3 = self.lin_per_layer(dim, hidden_dim, w=w13_raw[1])
+      self.w1, s_1 = self.lin_per_layer(dim, hidden_dim)
+      self.w3, s_3 = self.lin_per_layer(dim, hidden_dim)
     else:
       self.w13, s_13 = self.lin_per_layer(dim, hidden_dim * 2)
     self.w2, s_2 = self.lin_per_layer(hidden_dim, dim, std=scaled_std)
@@ -160,7 +158,7 @@ class FlatTransformer:
   def lin_per_layer(self, in_features:int, out_features:int, std:float=0.02, w:Tensor|None=None):
     if w is None:
       if getenv("ZEROS"): w = Tensor.zeros(self.n_layers, out_features, in_features)
-      else: w = Tensor.normal(self.n_layers, out_features, in_features, mean=0.0, std=std).realize()
+      else: w = Tensor.normal(self.n_layers, out_features, in_features, mean=0.0, std=std)
     if MXFP8:
       from extra.gemm.cdna_asm_gemm import quantize_mxfp8
       w_q, w_e8, _ = quantize_mxfp8(w.reshape(self.n_layers * out_features, in_features))
@@ -247,20 +245,30 @@ class FlatTransformer:
       for v in get_parameters(self): v.shard_(device, axis=None)
     else:
       # flat per-layer weights: axis 0 is n_layers, so shard axes are +1 vs per-layer Transformer
-      def _shard_fp8(name:str, axis:int):
-        getattr(self, name).shard_(device, axis=axis)
-        scale_axis = axis if MXFP8 else (1 if axis == 1 else None) if COLUMNWISE_WEIGHT_SCALE else None
-        self._fp8_inv_scale[name] = self._fp8_inv_scale[name].shard(device, axis=scale_axis).contiguous().is_param_(False)
-        self._fp8_next_inv_scale[name] = self._fp8_next_inv_scale[name].shard(device, axis=scale_axis).contiguous().is_param_(False)
-        Tensor.realize(getattr(self, name), self._fp8_inv_scale[name], self._fp8_next_inv_scale[name])
+      def _shard_fp8(name:str, axis:int, std:float=0.02):
+        w = getattr(self, name)
+        if MXFP8:
+          from extra.gemm.cdna_asm_gemm import quantize_mxfp8
+          w_bf16 = Tensor.empty(self.n_layers, w.shape[1], w.shape[2], dtype=dtypes.bfloat16).shard(device, axis=axis).randn_like() * std
+          w_q, w_e8, _ = quantize_mxfp8(w_bf16)
+          w.replace(w_q)
+          self._fp8_inv_scale[name].replace(w_e8.contiguous()).is_param_(False)
+          self._fp8_next_inv_scale[name].replace(w_e8.contiguous()).is_param_(False)
+        else:
+          w.shard_(device, axis=axis)
+          scale_axis = (1 if axis == 1 else None) if COLUMNWISE_WEIGHT_SCALE else None
+          self._fp8_inv_scale[name] = self._fp8_inv_scale[name].shard(device, axis=scale_axis).contiguous().is_param_(False)
+          self._fp8_next_inv_scale[name] = self._fp8_next_inv_scale[name].shard(device, axis=scale_axis).contiguous().is_param_(False)
+        Tensor.realize(w, self._fp8_inv_scale[name], self._fp8_next_inv_scale[name])
+      sstd = 0.02 / math.sqrt(2 * self.n_layers)
       _shard_fp8("wqkv", 1)          # (n_layers, out, dim) shard out
-      _shard_fp8("wo", 2)            # (n_layers, dim, in) shard in
+      _shard_fp8("wo", 2, sstd)      # (n_layers, dim, in) shard in
       if SPLIT_W13:
         _shard_fp8("w1", 1)
         _shard_fp8("w3", 1)
       else:
         _shard_fp8("w13", 1)         # (n_layers, hidden*2, dim) shard out
-      _shard_fp8("w2", 2)            # (n_layers, dim, hidden) shard in
+      _shard_fp8("w2", 2, sstd)      # (n_layers, dim, hidden) shard in
       self.attention_norm.shard_(device, axis=None).realize()
       self.ffn_norm.shard_(device, axis=None).realize()
       self.norm.weight.shard_(device, axis=None).realize()

examples/mnist_gan.py

@@ -3,7 +3,7 @@ import torch
 from torchvision.utils import make_grid, save_image
 from tinygrad.nn.state import get_parameters
 from tinygrad.tensor import Tensor
-from tinygrad.helpers import trange
+from tinygrad.helpers import trange, Context
 from tinygrad.nn import optim
 from tinygrad.nn.datasets import mnist
 
@@ -86,7 +86,7 @@ if __name__ == "__main__":
   optim_g = optim.Adam(get_parameters(generator), lr=0.0002, b1=0.5)  # 0.0002 for equilibrium!
   optim_d = optim.Adam(get_parameters(discriminator), lr=0.0002, b1=0.5)
   # training loop
-  with Tensor.train():
+  with Context(TRAINING=1):
     for epoch in (t := trange(epochs)):
       loss_g, loss_d = 0.0, 0.0
       for _ in range(n_steps):

examples/stunning_mnist.py

@@ -5,7 +5,7 @@
 #  - symbolic removal
 
 from examples.beautiful_mnist import Model
-from tinygrad import Tensor, nn, getenv, GlobalCounters, Variable
+from tinygrad import Tensor, nn, getenv, GlobalCounters, Variable, Context
 from tinygrad.nn.datasets import mnist
 from tinygrad.helpers import trange
 
@@ -26,7 +26,7 @@ if __name__ == "__main__":
   X_samp, Y_samp = X_train[samples], Y_train[samples]
   print("*** got samples")
 
-  with Tensor.train():
+  with Context(TRAINING=1):
     """
     i = UOp.range(samples.shape[0])  # TODO: fix range function on UOp
     losses = model(X_samp[i]).sparse_categorical_crossentropy(Y_samp[i]).backward().contract(i)

extra/gemm/amd_copy_matmul.py

@@ -66,7 +66,7 @@ def block_128x128_gemm(c:UOp, a:UOp, b:UOp) -> UOp:
 
   # accumulator (unified: both paths use (TM, TN) with scalar dtypes.float)
   acc = UOp.placeholder((TM, TN), dtypes.float, slot=2, addrspace=AddrSpace.REG)
-  acc = acc.after(acc.store(acc.zeros_like()))
+  acc = acc.after(acc.store(acc.zeros_like(buffer=False)))
 
   if use_wmma:
     k = UOp.range(BLOCK_K // WMMA_K, 101, AxisType.REDUCE)

extra/gemm/cdna_asm_gemm.py

@@ -2674,14 +2674,14 @@ def custom_hk_mxfp8_gemm(C:UOp, A:UOp, B:UOp, scale_A:UOp, scale_B:UOp, *extra:U
 
 def quantize_mxfp8(x:Tensor) -> tuple[Tensor, Tensor, Tensor]:
   # 1x32 block scaling along the last axis
-  rows, K = x.shape
-  scale_K, k_iters = K // 32, K // 128
-  amax = x.detach().float().reshape(rows, scale_K, 32).abs().max(axis=-1)
+  *batch, K = x.shape
+  scale_K = K // 32
+  amax = x.detach().float().reshape(*batch, scale_K, 32).abs().max(axis=-1)
   e8 = (amax.maximum(1e-38).log2().floor() + 127).clamp(0, 254).cast(dtypes.uint8)
-  qscale = (127.0 - e8.cast(dtypes.float32)).exp2().reshape(rows, scale_K, 1).expand(rows, scale_K, 32).reshape(rows, K)
+  qscale = (127.0 - e8.cast(dtypes.float32)).exp2().reshape(*batch, scale_K, 1).expand(*batch, scale_K, 32).reshape(*batch, K)
   x_scaled = x.float() * qscale
   x_clamped = x_scaled + (x_scaled.detach().clamp(-448.0, 448.0) - x_scaled.detach())  # STE
-  return x_clamped.cast(FP8_DTYPE), e8, mx_pack(e8)
+  return x_clamped.cast(FP8_DTYPE), e8, (mx_pack(e8) if len(batch) == 1 else None)
 
 def mx_pack(e8:Tensor) -> Tensor:
   rows, scale_K = e8.shape

extra/hcq2/hcq2.py

@@ -307,7 +307,7 @@ def schedule_inner_sync(ctx:DepsCtx, linear:UOp) -> UOp:
     for (_, lane), dep in latest.items(): deps[dep] += (lane,)
 
     if deps: new_q = new_q.after(*deps, arg=tuple(deps.values())).rtag("deps")
-    new_src.append(call.replace(src=(call.src[0].substitute({q:new_q}), *call.src[1:])))
+    new_src.append(call.replace(src=(call.src[0].substitute({q:new_q}),)))
   return linear.replace(src=tuple(new_src))
 pm_schedule_inner_sync = PatternMatcher([(UPat(Ops.LINEAR, name="linear"), schedule_inner_sync)])
 

extra/training.py

@@ -1,6 +1,6 @@
 import numpy as np
 from tinygrad.tensor import Tensor
-from tinygrad.helpers import trange
+from tinygrad.helpers import trange, Context
 from tinygrad.engine.jit import TinyJit
 
 
@@ -22,7 +22,7 @@ def train(model, X_train, Y_train, optim, steps, BS=128, lossfn=lambda out,y: ou
 
   if allow_jit: train_step = TinyJit(train_step)
 
-  with Tensor.train():
+  with Context(TRAINING=1):
     losses, accuracies = [], []
     for i in (t := trange(steps, disable=None)):
       samp = np.random.randint(0, X_train.shape[0], size=(BS))
@@ -55,4 +55,3 @@ def evaluate(model, X_test, Y_test, num_classes=None, BS=128, return_predict=Fal
   acc, Y_test_pred = numpy_eval(Y_test, num_classes)
   print("test set accuracy is %f" % acc)
   return (acc, Y_test_pred) if return_predict else acc
-

test/backend/test_edgecases.py

@@ -25,7 +25,7 @@
 import unittest
 import numpy as np
 import torch
-from tinygrad import Tensor, dtypes, nn
+from tinygrad import Tensor, dtypes, nn, Context
 from tinygrad.device import Device
 from tinygrad.helpers import DEV
 from tinygrad.renderer.nir import NIRRenderer
@@ -101,7 +101,7 @@ class TestDropoutProbabilityEdgeCases(unittest.TestCase):
   # we don't need more of these
 
   def test_dropout_rate_one(self):
-    with Tensor.train():
+    with Context(TRAINING=1):
       out = Tensor.ones(100).dropout(1.0)
       np.testing.assert_allclose(out.numpy(), np.zeros(100))
 
@@ -109,7 +109,7 @@ class TestDropoutProbabilityEdgeCases(unittest.TestCase):
     with self.assertRaises(ValueError):
       torch.nn.functional.dropout(torch.ones(10), -0.1, True)
     with self.assertRaises(ValueError):
-      with Tensor.train():
+      with Context(TRAINING=1):
         Tensor.ones(10).dropout(-0.1)
 
 class TestInputValidation(unittest.TestCase):

test/backend/test_nn.py

@@ -14,7 +14,7 @@ from test.helpers import not_support_multi_device, needs_second_gpu, slow
 @slow
 class TestNN(unittest.TestCase):
   def test_batchnorm2d(self, training=False, threed=False, track_running_stats=True):
-    with Tensor.train(training):
+    with Context(TRAINING=training):
       szs = [4, 8, 16, 32]
       for sz in szs:
         # create in tinygrad

test/backend/test_stunning.py

@@ -41,7 +41,7 @@ class TestStunning(unittest.TestCase):
     X_samp, Y_samp = X_train[samples], Y_train[samples]
     vi = Variable('i', 0, samples.shape[0]-1)
     with Context(SPLIT_REDUCEOP=0):
-      with Tensor.train():
+      with Context(TRAINING=1):
         losses = []
         for i in range(samples.shape[0]):
           vib = vi.bind(i)

test/backend/test_symbolic_ops.py

@@ -1,5 +1,5 @@
 import unittest
-from tinygrad import Tensor, Variable, GlobalCounters
+from tinygrad import Tensor, Variable, GlobalCounters, Context
 from tinygrad.uop.ops import sym_infer
 from tinygrad.dtype import dtypes
 from examples.gpt2 import Attention
@@ -63,7 +63,7 @@ class TestSymbolicOps(unittest.TestCase):
     self.test_attention(imin=4, imax=5, use_symbolic=True)
 
   def test_attention_training(self):
-    with Tensor.train():
+    with Context(TRAINING=1):
       self.test_attention(dropout_p=0.0)
       with self.assertRaises(ValueError):
         # symbolic shape dropout is not supported

test/backend/test_tensor.py

@@ -1,7 +1,7 @@
 import numpy as np
 import torch
 import unittest, copy, mmap, random, math, array
-from tinygrad import Tensor, Device, dtypes, nn
+from tinygrad import Tensor, Device, dtypes, nn, Context
 from tinygrad.helpers import getenv, temp, mv_address
 from extra.gradcheck import numerical_jacobian, jacobian, gradcheck
 from hypothesis import given, settings, strategies as strat
@@ -203,7 +203,7 @@ class TestTinygrad(unittest.TestCase):
       np.testing.assert_allclose(x, y, atol=1e-5)
 
   def test_dropout(self):
-    with Tensor.train():
+    with Context(TRAINING=1):
       n, rate = 1_000_000, 0.1
       w = Tensor.ones(n).dropout(rate)
       non_zeros = np.count_nonzero(w.numpy())

test/external/mlperf_stable_diffusion/external_test_train.py

@@ -1,6 +1,6 @@
 import unittest, os
 from tempfile import TemporaryDirectory
-from tinygrad import Tensor
+from tinygrad import Context
 from tinygrad.helpers import getenv
 from examples.mlperf.model_train import train_stable_diffusion
 
@@ -14,10 +14,10 @@ class TestTrain(unittest.TestCase):
     if not getenv("CKPTDIR", ""): os.environ["CKPTDIR"] = "/raid/weights/stable_diffusion"
     with TemporaryDirectory(prefix="test-train") as tmp:
       os.environ["UNET_CKPTDIR"] = tmp
-      with Tensor.train():
+      with Context(TRAINING=1):
         saved_ckpts = train_stable_diffusion()
       expected_ckpt = f"{tmp}/{num_steps}.safetensors"
       assert len(saved_ckpts) == 1 and saved_ckpts[0] == expected_ckpt
 
 if __name__=="__main__":
-  unittest.main()
+  unittest.main()

test/models/test_efficientnet.py

@@ -3,7 +3,7 @@ import ast, pathlib, unittest
 import numpy as np
 from PIL import Image
 
-from tinygrad import Tensor
+from tinygrad import Tensor, Context
 from tinygrad.helpers import getenv
 from test.helpers import slow
 from extra.models.efficientnet import EfficientNet
@@ -40,7 +40,7 @@ def preprocess(img, new=False):
   return img
 
 def _infer(model: EfficientNet, img):
-  with Tensor.train(False):
+  with Context(TRAINING=0):
     out = model.forward(Tensor(img)).argmax(axis=-1)
   return out.tolist()
 

test/models/test_end2end.py

@@ -5,10 +5,11 @@ import numpy as np
 from tinygrad.nn.state import get_parameters, get_state_dict
 from tinygrad.nn import optim, Linear, Conv2d, BatchNorm2d
 from tinygrad.tensor import Tensor
+from tinygrad.helpers import Context
 from extra.datasets import fetch_mnist
 
 def compare_tiny_torch(model, model_torch, X, Y):
-  with Tensor.train():
+  with Context(TRAINING=1):
     model_torch.train()
     model_state_dict = get_state_dict(model)
     for k,v in model_torch.named_parameters():

test/null/test_real_world.py

@@ -106,7 +106,7 @@ class TestRealWorld(unittest.TestCase):
   @slow
   def test_train_mnist(self):
     from examples.beautiful_mnist import Model
-    with Tensor.train():
+    with Context(TRAINING=1):
       model = Model()
       optimizer = optim.Adam(get_parameters(model))
       BS = 32
@@ -125,7 +125,7 @@ class TestRealWorld(unittest.TestCase):
   def test_forward_cifar(self):
     BS = 32
     # with training batchnorm still though
-    with Tensor.train():
+    with Context(TRAINING=1):
       model = SpeedyResNet(Tensor.ones((12,3,2,2)))
       @TinyJit
       def run(X): return model(X)
@@ -133,7 +133,7 @@ class TestRealWorld(unittest.TestCase):
 
   @slow
   def test_train_cifar(self):
-    with Tensor.train():
+    with Context(TRAINING=1):
       model = SpeedyResNet(Tensor.ones((12,3,2,2)))
       optimizer = optim.SGD(get_parameters(model), lr=0.01, momentum=0.8, nesterov=True, weight_decay=0.15)
       BS = 32
@@ -151,7 +151,7 @@ class TestRealWorld(unittest.TestCase):
   @unittest.skipUnless(dtypes.float16 in supported_dtypes, "need dtypes.float16")
   def test_train_cifar_hyp(self):
     dtypes.default_float = dtypes.float16
-    with Tensor.train():
+    with Context(TRAINING=1):
       model = SpeedyResNet(Tensor.ones((12,3,2,2)))
       optimizer = optim.SGD(get_parameters(model), lr=0.01, momentum=hyp['opt']['momentum'], nesterov=True, weight_decay=hyp['opt']['bias_decay'])
       initial_div_factor = hyp['opt']['initial_div_factor']
@@ -163,7 +163,7 @@ class TestRealWorld(unittest.TestCase):
 
   @slow
   def test_bert(self):
-    with Tensor.train():
+    with Context(TRAINING=1):
       args_tiny = {"attention_probs_dropout_prob": 0.0, "hidden_dropout_prob": 0.0, "vocab_size": 30522, "type_vocab_size": 2,
                   "max_position_embeddings": 512, "hidden_size": 128, "intermediate_size": 512, "num_attention_heads": 2, "num_hidden_layers": 2}
       model = BertForPretraining(**args_tiny)

test/null/test_schedule.py

@@ -1093,14 +1093,14 @@ class TestSchedule(unittest.TestCase):
 
   #@unittest.skip("may want to reconsider this")
   def test_fold_batchnorm(self):
-    with Tensor.train():
+    with Context(TRAINING=1):
       img = Tensor.empty(1,32,4,4)
       bn = nn.BatchNorm2d(32, track_running_stats=False)
       out = bn(img)
       check_schedule(out, 3, nn.state.get_parameters(bn))
 
   def test_fold_conv_batchnorm_notrain(self):
-    with Tensor.train(False):
+    with Context(TRAINING=0):
       img = Tensor.empty(1,3,8,8)
       c1 = nn.Conv2d(3,32,3)
       bn = nn.BatchNorm2d(32, track_running_stats=True)
@@ -1108,7 +1108,7 @@ class TestSchedule(unittest.TestCase):
       check_schedule(out, 1, [c1.weight, c1.bias, *nn.state.get_parameters(bn)])
 
   def test_fold_conv_batchnorm_notrain_no_running_stats(self):
-    with Tensor.train(False):
+    with Context(TRAINING=0):
       img = Tensor.empty(1,3,8,8)
       c1 = nn.Conv2d(3,32,3)
       bn = nn.BatchNorm2d(32, track_running_stats=False)
@@ -1116,7 +1116,7 @@ class TestSchedule(unittest.TestCase):
       check_schedule(out, 4, [c1.weight, c1.bias, *nn.state.get_parameters(bn)])
 
   def test_fold_conv_batchnorm(self):
-    with Tensor.train():
+    with Context(TRAINING=1):
       img = Tensor.empty(1,3,8,8)
       c1 = nn.Conv2d(3,32,3)
       bn = nn.BatchNorm2d(32, track_running_stats=False)
@@ -1125,7 +1125,7 @@ class TestSchedule(unittest.TestCase):
 
   def test_fold_conv_batchnorm_optim(self, adam=False):
     optim, cnt = (nn.optim.Adam, 29) if adam else (nn.optim.SGD, 15)
-    with Tensor.train():
+    with Context(TRAINING=1):
       img = Tensor.ones(1,3,4,4)
       c1 = nn.Conv2d(3,32,3)
       bn = nn.BatchNorm2d(32, track_running_stats=False)
@@ -1139,7 +1139,7 @@ class TestSchedule(unittest.TestCase):
   def test_fold_conv_batchnorm_optim_adam(self): self.test_fold_conv_batchnorm_optim(True)
 
   def test_fold_batchnorm_backward(self):
-    with Tensor.train():
+    with Context(TRAINING=1):
       x = Tensor.empty((2, 16, 8, 8)).contiguous()
       bn = nn.BatchNorm2d(16)
       fw = bn(x).contiguous_backward().relu().contiguous()
@@ -1484,7 +1484,7 @@ class TestSchedule(unittest.TestCase):
     check_schedule(out, 4)
 
   def test_adam_step_fusion(self):
-    with Tensor.train():
+    with Context(TRAINING=1):
       x = Tensor.empty(4, 64, 32)
       layer = nn.Linear(32, 32*4)
       _realize_weights(layer)
@@ -1494,7 +1494,7 @@ class TestSchedule(unittest.TestCase):
       check_schedule(opt.schedule_step(), 13)
 
   def test_adam_conv_fuse(self):
-    with Tensor.train():
+    with Context(TRAINING=1):
       img = Tensor.empty(2,3,4,4)
       c1 = nn.Conv2d(3,32,3)
       _realize_weights(c1)
@@ -1505,7 +1505,7 @@ class TestSchedule(unittest.TestCase):
       check_schedule(opt.schedule_step(), 13)
 
   def test_adam_2convs_fuse(self):
-    with Tensor.train():
+    with Context(TRAINING=1):
       img = Tensor.empty(2,3,4,4)
       c1 = nn.Conv2d(3,16,3,bias=False)
       c2 = nn.Conv2d(16,32,2,bias=False)
@@ -1517,7 +1517,7 @@ class TestSchedule(unittest.TestCase):
       check_schedule(opt.schedule_step(), 15)
 
   def test_sgd_conv_fuse(self):
-    with Tensor.train():
+    with Context(TRAINING=1):
       img = Tensor.empty(2,3,4,4)
       c1 = nn.Conv2d(3,32,3)
       _realize_weights(c1)
@@ -1527,7 +1527,7 @@ class TestSchedule(unittest.TestCase):
       check_schedule(opt.schedule_step(), 5) # TODO: 3?
 
   def test_sgd_2convs_fuse(self):
-    with Tensor.train():
+    with Context(TRAINING=1):
       img = Tensor.empty(2,3,4,4)
       c1 = nn.Conv2d(3,16,3,bias=False)
       c2 = nn.Conv2d(16,32,2,bias=False)
@@ -1538,7 +1538,7 @@ class TestSchedule(unittest.TestCase):
       check_schedule(opt.schedule_step(), 7)
 
   def test_fold_2convs_sgd_nesterov_momentum_wd(self):
-    with Tensor.train():
+    with Context(TRAINING=1):
       img = Tensor.empty(2,3,4,4)
       c1 = nn.Conv2d(3,16,3,bias=False)
       c2 = nn.Conv2d(16,32,2,bias=False)
@@ -1550,7 +1550,7 @@ class TestSchedule(unittest.TestCase):
       check_schedule(opt.schedule_step(), 11)
 
   def test_sgd_4convs_fuse(self):
-    with Tensor.train():
+    with Context(TRAINING=1):
       img = Tensor.empty(2,3,16,16)
       c1 = nn.Conv2d(3,4,3,bias=False)
       c2 = nn.Conv2d(4,8,3,bias=False)
@@ -1563,7 +1563,7 @@ class TestSchedule(unittest.TestCase):
       check_schedule(opt.schedule_step(), 15)
 
   def test_sgd_4convs_fuse_conv_bw(self):
-    with Tensor.train():
+    with Context(TRAINING=1):
       img = Tensor.empty(2,3,16,16)
       c1 = nn.Conv2d(3,4,3,bias=False)
       c2 = nn.Conv2d(4,8,3,bias=False)
@@ -1664,7 +1664,7 @@ class TestSchedule(unittest.TestCase):
     self.assertEqual(len([x for x in linear.src[0].src[0].backward_slice_with_self if x.op is Ops.REDUCE]), 0)
 
   def test_resnet_block(self):
-    with Tensor.train(False):
+    with Context(TRAINING=0):
       in_planes, planes = 64, 64
       conv1 = nn.Conv2d(in_planes, planes, kernel_size=3, stride=1, padding=1, bias=False)
       bn1 = nn.BatchNorm2d(planes)

test/null/test_tensor.py

@@ -1,7 +1,7 @@
 # tensor tests that pass on NULL backend (no copyout needed)
 import numpy as np
 import unittest
-from tinygrad import Tensor, Device, dtypes
+from tinygrad import Tensor, Device, dtypes, Context
 from tinygrad.uop.ops import Ops, UOp
 from tinygrad.renderer.ptx import PTXRenderer
 from tinygrad.renderer.nir import NIRRenderer
@@ -15,7 +15,7 @@ m_init = np.random.randn(1,3).astype(np.float32)
 class TestTrainMode(unittest.TestCase):
   def test_train_mode(self):
     assert not Tensor.training
-    @Tensor.train()
+    @Context(TRAINING=1)
     def f():
       assert Tensor.training
     f()

test/null/test_tensor_uop_mixin.py

@@ -317,6 +317,19 @@ class TestTensorUOpScatterReduce(unittest.TestCase):
   def test_mean_exclude_self(self):
     self._check(_t(3, 4).float(), Tensor([[0, 1, 0, 1]]*3, dtype=dtypes.int32), Tensor.ones(3, 4).float(), reduce="mean", include_self=False)
 
+class TestTensorUOpMaskedSelect(unittest.TestCase):
+  # only the fixed-size path is pure
+  def _check(self, t, mask, **kw):
+    self.assertIs(t.masked_select(mask, **kw).uop, t.uop.masked_select(mask.uop, **kw))
+  def test_masked_select_1d(self): self._check(_t(6), Tensor([True, False, True, False, True, False]), size=4)
+  def test_masked_select_2d(self):
+    self._check(_t(3, 3), Tensor([[True, False, True], [False, True, False], [False, False, True]]), size=6, fill_value=-1)
+
+class TestTensorUOpNonzero(unittest.TestCase):
+  def _check(self, t, **kw): self.assertIs(t.nonzero(**kw).uop, t.uop.nonzero(**kw))
+  def test_nonzero_1d(self): self._check(_t(5), size=3)
+  def test_nonzero_2d(self): self._check(_t(2, 3), size=4)
+
 class TestTensorUOpPool(unittest.TestCase):
   def test_avg_pool2d(self):                _check(self, _t(1, 1, 5, 5).float(), lambda x: x.avg_pool2d())
   def test_avg_pool2d_padding(self):        _check(self, _t(1, 1, 5, 5).float(), lambda x: x.avg_pool2d(padding=1))
@@ -462,6 +475,10 @@ class TestTensorUOpCreation(unittest.TestCase):
     self.assertIs(_strip_unique(Tensor.ones(2, 3).uop), _strip_unique(UOp.ones(2, 3)))
   def test_invalids(self):
     self.assertIs(_strip_unique(Tensor.invalids(2, 3, dtype=dtypes.int8).uop), _strip_unique(UOp.invalids((2, 3), dtype=dtypes.int8)))
+  def test_empty_like(self):
+    t = Tensor.empty(2, 3, dtype=dtypes.int8)
+    self.assertIs(_strip_unique(t.empty_like().uop), _strip_unique(t.uop.empty_like()))
+    self.assertIs(_strip_unique(t.empty_like(dtype=dtypes.float, device="NULL").uop), _strip_unique(t.uop.empty_like(dtypes.float, "NULL")))
   def test_arange(self):
     self.assertIs(Tensor.arange(5).uop, UOp.arange(5))
   def test_arange_empty(self):

test/null/test_winograd.py

@@ -13,35 +13,26 @@ class TestWinograd(unittest.TestCase):
   def test_forward_kernels(self):
     x,w = Tensor.rand(1,4,9,9).realize(), Tensor.rand(4,4,3,3).realize()
     out = Tensor.conv2d(x,w)
-    self.assertEqual(len(out.schedule_linear().src), 2)
+    self.assertEqual(len(out.schedule_linear().src), 4)
 
   def test_backward_kernels(self):
     x,w = Tensor.empty(1,4,9,9).realize(), Tensor.empty(4,4,3,3).realize()
     out = Tensor.conv2d(x,w, padding=1)
     out.mean().backward()
     backward_schedule = x.grad.schedule_linear(w.grad)
-    self.assertEqual(len(backward_schedule.src), 2)
+    self.assertEqual(len(backward_schedule.src), 4)
 
-  @unittest.skip("this requires optimizations")
   def test_counters(self):
-    IC, OC, X, Y = 4,4,9,9
-    x,w = Tensor.rand(1,IC,Y,X).realize(), Tensor.rand(OC,IC,3,3).realize()
+    IC, OC, H = 64, 64, 28
+    x,w = Tensor.empty(1,IC,H,H,device="NULL").realize(), Tensor.empty(OC,IC,3,3,device="NULL").realize()
     GlobalCounters.reset()
-    with Context(WINO=1):
-      Tensor.conv2d(x,w).realize()
-    ops_wino, mem_wino = GlobalCounters.global_ops, GlobalCounters.global_mem
+    with Context(NOOPT=0, WINO=1): Tensor.conv2d(x,w).realize()
+    ops_wino = GlobalCounters.global_ops
     GlobalCounters.reset()
-    with Context(WINO=0):
-      Tensor.conv2d(x,w).realize()
-    ops_normal, mem_normal = GlobalCounters.global_ops, GlobalCounters.global_mem
-
-    ops_ratio, mem_ratio = ops_wino/ops_normal, mem_wino/mem_normal
-    print(f"ops: normal {ops_normal:9d} wino {ops_wino:9d} ratio {ops_ratio:.2f}")
-    print(f"mem: normal {mem_normal:9d} wino {mem_wino:9d} ratio {mem_ratio:.2f}")
-
-    # TODO: what's optimal on this?
-    self.assertLess(ops_ratio, 4.3)
-    self.assertLess(mem_ratio, 4)
+    with Context(NOOPT=0, WINO=0): Tensor.conv2d(x,w).realize()
+    ops_normal = GlobalCounters.global_ops
+    print(f"ops: normal {ops_normal} wino {ops_wino} ratio {ops_wino/ops_normal:.2f}")
+    self.assertLess(ops_wino/ops_normal, 0.6)
 
   def test_dtype(self):
     IC, OC, X, Y = 4,4,9,9

test/unit/test_call.py

@@ -222,7 +222,7 @@ class TestCallSchedule(unittest.TestCase):
     # find the FUNCTION nodes
     c0 = next(u for u in r0.uop.toposort() if u.op is Ops.FUNCTION)
     c1 = next(u for u in r1.uop.toposort() if u.op is Ops.FUNCTION)
-    # the function bodies (src[0]) should have identical keys — unique consts must not leak through
+    # the function bodies (src[0]) should have identical keys
     self.assertEqual(c0.src[0].key, c1.src[0].key)
 
   def test_precompile_symbolic_2d(self):

test/unit/test_function.py

@@ -1,8 +1,9 @@
 import numpy as np
 import unittest
 from tinygrad.function import function
-from tinygrad import Tensor, GlobalCounters
-from tinygrad.uop.ops import UOp, Ops, KernelInfo
+from tinygrad import Tensor, GlobalCounters, Device
+from tinygrad.dtype import dtypes, Invalid
+from tinygrad.uop.ops import UOp, Ops, KernelInfo, ProgramInfo
 
 class TestFunction(unittest.TestCase):
   def test_simple(self):
@@ -549,6 +550,36 @@ class TestFunctionTuple(unittest.TestCase):
     f(Tensor([1., 2., 3., 4.], device="CPU").contiguous().realize()).realize()
     np.testing.assert_allclose(state.numpy(), [2., 4., 6., 8.])
 
+  def test_custom_kernel_program_invalids_not_captured(self):
+    # llama FP8 kernels are PROGRAM with bare-buffer sinks (no analyzable stores), so the invalids scratch
+    # still must not be captured as an input -- else it is read before the kernel writes it
+    src = "void k(float* restrict data0, float* restrict data1) { for (int i=0;i<4;i++) data0[i]=data1[i]*2.0f; }"
+    lib = Device["CPU"].compiler.compile(src)
+    def prog(C:UOp, A:UOp) -> UOp:
+      sink = UOp.sink(C.base, A.base, arg=KernelInfo(name="k"))
+      return UOp(Ops.PROGRAM, src=(sink, UOp(Ops.DEVICE, arg="CPU"), UOp(Ops.LINEAR, src=(*sink.src, sink)),
+                                   UOp(Ops.SOURCE, arg=src), UOp(Ops.BINARY, arg=lib)),
+                 arg=ProgramInfo(name="k", global_size=(1, 1, 1), local_size=(1, 1, 1), globals=(0, 1)))
+
+    @function(precompile=True)
+    def f(a:Tensor):
+      c = Tensor.invalids(*a.shape, dtype=a.dtype, device=a.device)
+      return Tensor.custom_kernel(c, a, fxn=prog)[0]
+
+    a = Tensor([1., 2., 3., 4.], device="CPU").contiguous().realize()
+    np.testing.assert_allclose(f(a).numpy(), [2., 4., 6., 8.])
+
+  def test_invalid_store_into_realized_buffer_is_captured(self):
+    # only fresh invalids() scratch is skipped; a realized buffer is a real input even if an Invalid store
+    # writes into part of it (its other elements must be preserved), so it is still captured
+    state = Tensor([10., 20., 30., 40.], device="CPU").contiguous().realize()
+    @function(precompile=True, allow_implicit=True)
+    def f(a:Tensor):
+      after = state.uop.after(state.uop.shrink(((0, 2),)).store(UOp.const(dtypes.float32, Invalid, shape=(2,))))
+      return Tensor(after).contiguous() + a
+    out = f(Tensor([1., 1., 1., 1.], device="CPU").contiguous().realize())
+    np.testing.assert_allclose(out.numpy(), [11., 21., 31., 41.])
+
   def test_custom_kernel_precompile_further_compute(self, multi=False, kernel_count:int=2):
     devs = ("CPU:0", "CPU:1")
     def my_kernel(C:UOp, A:UOp) -> UOp:

test/unit/test_multitensor.py

@@ -207,7 +207,7 @@ class TestMultiTensor(unittest.TestCase):
     out.numpy()
 
   def test_backprop_conv(self):
-    with Tensor.train():
+    with Context(TRAINING=1):
       conv = nn.Conv2d(3, 16, 3)
       for p in get_parameters(conv): p.shard_(devices_2)
       optim = nn.optim.Adam(get_parameters(conv))
@@ -511,7 +511,7 @@ class TestMultiTensor(unittest.TestCase):
   def test_full_like_on_shard_axis(self): self.test_full_like_on_shard(0)
 
   def test_dropout_on_shard(self):
-    with Tensor.train():
+    with Context(TRAINING=1):
       X = Tensor.ones(256).to(devices_2)
       output = X.dropout(0.5).numpy()
       unique, counts = np.unique(output, return_counts=True)
@@ -519,7 +519,7 @@ class TestMultiTensor(unittest.TestCase):
       assert 96 < counts[0] < 160, counts[0]
 
   def test_dropout_on_shard_axis(self):
-    with Tensor.train():
+    with Context(TRAINING=1):
       X = Tensor.ones(512).shard(devices_2, axis=0)
       output = X.dropout(0.5).numpy()
       unique, counts = np.unique(output, return_counts=True)
@@ -664,7 +664,7 @@ class TestBatchNorm(unittest.TestCase):
   def setUp(self): pass
 
   def test_unsynced_backprop_conv_bn(self):
-    with Tensor.train():
+    with Context(TRAINING=1):
       from extra.lr_scheduler import OneCycleLR
 
       convs = [nn.Conv2d(3, 16, 3), nn.Conv2d(3, 16, 3)]
@@ -709,7 +709,7 @@ class TestBatchNorm(unittest.TestCase):
           bn_ts.append(bni)
         return bn_ts[0].cat(*bn_ts[1:])
 
-    with Tensor.train():
+    with Context(TRAINING=1):
       conv = nn.Conv2d(3, 16, 3)
       bn = BatchNorm(16)
 
@@ -731,7 +731,7 @@ class TestBatchNorm(unittest.TestCase):
     from examples.hlb_cifar10 import UnsyncedBatchNorm
     GPUS = (d1, d2)
 
-    with Tensor.train():
+    with Context(TRAINING=1):
       conv = nn.Conv2d(3, 16, 3)
       bn = UnsyncedBatchNorm(16, num_devices=len(GPUS))
 
@@ -756,7 +756,7 @@ class TestBatchNorm(unittest.TestCase):
     devices = [f"{Device.DEFAULT}:{i}" for i in range(4)]
     x = Tensor.arange(4096).reshape(8, 8, 8, 8).clone().realize().shard(devices, axis=0)
 
-    with Tensor.train(is_training):
+    with Context(TRAINING=is_training):
       bns = []
       for _ in range(len(devices)):
         bn = nn.BatchNorm2d(8)
@@ -777,7 +777,7 @@ class TestBatchNorm(unittest.TestCase):
     devices = [f"{Device.DEFAULT}:{i}" for i in range(4)]
     x = Tensor.ones(8, 8, 8, 8).contiguous().realize().shard(devices, axis=0)
 
-    with Tensor.train():
+    with Context(TRAINING=1):
       synced_bn = BatchNorm2d(8)
       unsynced_bn = UnsyncedBatchNorm(8, num_devices=len(devices))
 

tinygrad/codegen/__init__.py

@@ -12,11 +12,9 @@ from tinygrad.dtype import dtypes, PtrDType, ImageDType
 
 # import all pattern matchers here
 from tinygrad.codegen.gpudims import pm_add_gpudims
-from tinygrad.uop.symbolic import sym, symbolic_simple, gep_pushing, symbolic, pm_move_where_on_load, pm_clean_up_group_sink, pm_remove_invalid
+from tinygrad.uop.symbolic import sym, symbolic_simple, gep_pushing, symbolic, pm_move_where_on_load, pm_clean_up_group_sink
 from tinygrad.uop.decompositions import get_late_rewrite_patterns, get_transcendental_patterns, pm_dtype_decomps
-from tinygrad.codegen.late.expander import expander, pm_pre_expander, pm_group_for_reduce
-from tinygrad.codegen.late.devectorizer import load_store_folding, load_store_indexing, devectorize_buf_and_index, devectorize_alu, pm_reduce, \
-  ReduceContext, correct_load_store, pm_render, pm_make_images
+from tinygrad.codegen.late.devectorizer import load_store_indexing, ReduceContext, pm_render, pm_make_images
 from tinygrad.codegen.opt.postrange import apply_opts
 from tinygrad.codegen.late.gater import pm_move_gates_from_index
 from tinygrad.codegen.simplify import pm_simplify_ranges, pm_flatten_range, pm_split_ranges, pm_load_collapse
@@ -24,6 +22,8 @@ from tinygrad.schedule.rangeify import pm_add_buffers_local, rangeify_codegen, p
 from tinygrad.codegen.late.linearizer import CFGContext, pm_split_ends, pm_add_control_flow, linearize
 from tinygrad.codegen.late.regalloc import LinearScanRegallocContext, pm_regalloc_rewrite
 
+from tinygrad.codegen.codegen2 import expander2, pm_move_regs, devectorizer2, unbroadcast, pm_reduce_local, pm_horizontal_reduce, memory_coalesing
+
 pm_index_is_shrink = PatternMatcher([
   # rewrite non-image INDEX to SHRINK
   (UPat(Ops.INDEX, src=(UPat.var("buf"), UPat.var("idx"))).cast(name="x"), lambda buf,idx,x:
@@ -52,14 +52,6 @@ pm_number_params = PatternMatcher([
   (UPat(Ops.PARAM, name="x"), do_number_param),
 ])
 
-def maybe_load(u:UOp): return u.load() if u.addrspace in (AddrSpace.GLOBAL, AddrSpace.LOCAL, AddrSpace.REG) else u
-pm_load_to_alu = PatternMatcher([
-  # NOTE: the PtrDType thing is temporary
-  (UPat(GroupOp.Elementwise|{Ops.STACK,Ops.GEP}, name="x"), lambda x:
-   x.replace(src=tuple([maybe_load(u) for u in x.src])) if not isinstance(x.dtype, PtrDType) else None),
-  (UPat(Ops.STORE, name="x"), lambda x: x.replace(src=(x.src[0], maybe_load(x.src[1]))+x.src[2:])),
-])
-
 def full_rewrite_to_sink(ast:UOp, ren:Renderer, optimize:bool=True) -> UOp:
   if VIZ: graph_rewrite(ast, PatternMatcher([]), name="View Base AST")
   if DEBUG >= 5: print(pyrender(ast))
@@ -86,17 +78,19 @@ def full_rewrite_to_sink(ast:UOp, ren:Renderer, optimize:bool=True) -> UOp:
     sink = apply_opts(sink, ren, beam=ast.arg.beam)
 
   # ** expander (expand_rewrite) **
-  sink = graph_rewrite(sink, sym+pm_move_where_on_load, name="postopt symbolic")
+  sink = graph_rewrite(sink, sym+pm_move_where_on_load+pm_flatten_range, name="postopt symbolic")
 
   # expand
-  sink = graph_rewrite(sink, sym+pm_pre_expander+pm_group_for_reduce+expander, name="expander")
+  #sink = graph_rewrite(sink, sym+pm_pre_expander+pm_group_for_reduce+expander, name="expander")
+  sink = graph_rewrite(sink, expander2, ctx={}, name="expander", bottom_up=True)
 
   # add locals
   sink = graph_rewrite(sink, pm_add_buffers_local+rangeify_codegen, ctx=itertools.count(0), name="add local buffers")
 
   # ** devectorizer (full_graph_rewrite) **
   # remove reduce
-  sink = graph_rewrite(sink, pm_reduce+gep_pushing, ctx=ReduceContext(), name="remove_reduce")
+  #sink = graph_rewrite(sink, pm_reduce+gep_pushing, ctx=ReduceContext(), name="remove_reduce")
+  sink = graph_rewrite(sink, pm_reduce_local+pm_horizontal_reduce, ctx=ReduceContext(), name="remove_reduce")
 
   # add gpu dims (late). this works after devectorize, but it's faster here
   sink = graph_rewrite(sink, pm_add_gpudims, ctx=ren, name="add gpudims")
@@ -104,15 +98,21 @@ def full_rewrite_to_sink(ast:UOp, ren:Renderer, optimize:bool=True) -> UOp:
   # **** optimizations are done, now we lower to actual code ****
 
   # add loads and remove invalids
-  sink = graph_rewrite(sink, pm_load_to_alu+pm_remove_invalid, name="** add loads (code)")
+  #sink = graph_rewrite(sink, pm_add_loads+pm_remove_invalid, name="** add loads (code)")
+  sink = graph_rewrite(sink, pm_move_regs,  name="** add loads")
 
   # create image buffers
   if IMAGE and ren.target.device in {"QCOM", "CL", "PYTHON", "NULL"}:
     sink = graph_rewrite(sink, pm_make_images, name="create image buffers", bottom_up=True, ctx=ren.target.arch)
 
+  # hreduce
+  #sink = graph_rewrite(sink, pm_mops+pm_horizontal_reduce, name="hreduce")
+
   # devectorize
-  sink = graph_rewrite(sink, sym+devectorize_alu+devectorize_buf_and_index+load_store_folding+correct_load_store+load_store_indexing,
-                       ctx=ren, name="devectorize")
+  #sink = graph_rewrite(sink, sym+devectorize_alu+devectorize_buf_and_index+load_store_folding+correct_load_store+load_store_indexing,
+  #                     ctx=ren, name="devectorize")
+  sink = graph_rewrite(sink, unbroadcast, name="*** unbroadcast")
+  sink = graph_rewrite(sink, symbolic_simple+devectorizer2, ctx=ren, name="devectorize2")
 
   # lower the index dtype to a concrete int
   sink = graph_rewrite(sink, pm_lower_index_dtype+load_store_indexing+gep_pushing, name="lower all index dtypes")
@@ -121,12 +121,21 @@ def full_rewrite_to_sink(ast:UOp, ren:Renderer, optimize:bool=True) -> UOp:
   # optional pre matcher
   if ren.pre_matcher is not None: sink = graph_rewrite(sink, ren.pre_matcher, name="pre_matcher")
 
+  # dtypes
+  sink = graph_rewrite(sink, pm_dtype_decomps, ctx=(set(), ren), name="decomp dtypes")
+
+  # memory coalesing
+  sink = memory_coalesing(sink)
+
+  # again
+  sink = graph_rewrite(sink, pm_lower_index_dtype+load_store_indexing+gep_pushing, name="lower all index dtypes")
+  sink = graph_rewrite(sink, symbolic, name="post index symbolic")
+
   # decompositions
   supported_ops = tuple(ren.code_for_op.keys())
   pm_decomp = symbolic_simple+get_late_rewrite_patterns(supported_ops, bool(DISABLE_FAST_IDIV))
   pm_transcendental = symbolic_simple+get_transcendental_patterns(supported_ops, TRANSCENDENTAL>=2)
   sink = graph_rewrite(sink, pm_decomp, ctx=ren, name="decompositions")
-  sink = graph_rewrite(sink, pm_dtype_decomps, ctx=(set(), ren), name="decomp dtypes")
   sink = graph_rewrite(sink, pm_transcendental, name="transcendental")
 
   # GEP/STACK stuff

tinygrad/codegen/codegen2.py

@@ -0,0 +1,161 @@
+from typing import Any
+import itertools, functools
+from tinygrad.schedule.rangeify import pm_mops
+from tinygrad.codegen.simplify import pm_flatten_range
+from tinygrad.uop.ops import PatternMatcher, UPat, GroupOp, Ops, UOp, AxisType, resolve, graph_rewrite
+from tinygrad.dtype import dtypes, AddrSpace, ImageDType, Invalid
+from tinygrad.helpers import all_same, flatten, getenv
+from tinygrad.uop.ops import _align_left, _broadcast_shape, identity_element
+from tinygrad.codegen.late.devectorizer import ReduceContext
+from tinygrad.uop.symbolic import pm_clean_up_group_sink
+from collections import defaultdict
+
+def maybe_load(u:UOp): return u.load() if u.addrspace in (AddrSpace.GLOBAL, AddrSpace.LOCAL, AddrSpace.REG) else u
+pm_move_regs = PatternMatcher([
+  # BITCAST?
+  (UPat(GroupOp.Elementwise|{Ops.REDUCE}, name="x"), lambda x: x.replace(src=tuple([maybe_load(u) for u in x.src]))),
+  (UPat(Ops.STORE, name="x"), lambda x: x.replace(src=(x.src[0], maybe_load(x.src[1]))+x.src[2:])),
+])
+
+pm_lower_weakints = PatternMatcher([
+  (UPat(GroupOp.All, dtype=dtypes.weakint, name="x"), lambda x: x.replace(dtype=dtypes.int)),
+])
+
+def build_range_map(ctx, sink:UOp):
+  for x in sink.toposort():
+    if x.op is Ops.RANGE and x.arg[1] in {AxisType.UNROLL, AxisType.UPCAST}:
+      ctx[x.arg[0]] = len(ctx)
+
+def fix_reduce(ctx, r:UOp):
+  range_to_axis = {u:ctx[u.arg[0]] for u in r.ended_ranges if u.arg[0] in ctx if u.arg[1] == AxisType.UNROLL}
+  return r.replace(src=tuple([u for u in r.src if u not in range_to_axis]), arg=(r.arg[0], r.arg[1]+tuple(range_to_axis.values())))
+
+expander2 = PatternMatcher([
+  (UPat(Ops.SINK, name="sink"), build_range_map),
+  (UPat(Ops.REDUCE, name="r"), fix_reduce),
+  (UPat(Ops.RANGE, name="r"),
+   lambda ctx, r: UOp.const(r.dtype, tuple(range(r.vmax+1))) \
+    .reshape(tuple([r.vmax+1 if i == ctx[r.arg[0]] else 1 for i in range(len(ctx))])) if r.arg[0] in ctx else None),
+])+pm_flatten_range
+
+def broadcast_binary(x:UOp):
+  shapes = [u.shape for u in x.src]
+  if all_same(shapes): return None
+  shaped_aligned = _align_left(*shapes)
+  broadcasted = _broadcast_shape(*shapes)
+  src_reshaped = [u.reshape(shp).expand(broadcasted) for u,shp in zip(x.src, shaped_aligned)]
+  return x.replace(src=tuple(src_reshaped))
+
+unbroadcast = PatternMatcher([
+  (UPat(GroupOp.Binary|GroupOp.Ternary|{Ops.STORE}, name="x"), broadcast_binary),
+])
+
+def do_devectorize(b:UOp):
+  if b.shape == (): return None
+  # broadcasting needs to be already unpacked
+  if not all_same([x.shape for x in b.src]): return None
+  src = []
+  for idx in itertools.product(*[range(x) for x in b.shape]):
+    idx_c = [UOp.const(dtypes.weakint, i) for i in idx]
+    src.append(b.replace(src=tuple([x.index(*idx_c) for x in b.src])))
+  return UOp.vectorize(*src).reshape(b.shape) if b.op is not Ops.STORE else UOp.group(*src)
+
+devectorizer2 = pm_mops+PatternMatcher([
+  # unpack broadcasting
+  (UPat(GroupOp.Elementwise|{Ops.LOAD,Ops.STORE}, name="b"), do_devectorize),
+  # const INDEX into STACK is src
+  (UPat(Ops.INDEX, src=(UPat(Ops.STACK, name="a"), UPat.cvar("i"))), lambda a,i: a.src[i.arg]),
+  # stacked INDEX is many INDEX
+  (UPat(Ops.INDEX, src=(UPat((Ops.PARAM, Ops.BUFFER), name="b"), UPat(Ops.STACK, name="s"))),
+   lambda b,s: UOp.vectorize(*[b.index(u) for u in s.src])),
+  # INDEX into RESHAPE moves the RESHAPE
+  (UPat(Ops.INDEX, src=(UPat((Ops.PARAM, Ops.BUFFER), name="b"), UPat(Ops.RESHAPE, name="s"))),
+   lambda b,s: b.index(s.src[0]).reshape(s.shape)),
+  # RESHAPE a void is removed (hack for AFTER)
+  (UPat(Ops.RESHAPE, dtype=dtypes.void, name="x"), lambda x: x.src[0]),
+  # reshape of a single element shaped value to scalar is an index
+  (UPat(Ops.RESHAPE, name="x"), lambda x: x.src[0].index(UOp.const(dtypes.weakint, 0)) if x.marg == () and x.src[0].shape == (1,) else None),
+  # INDEX without src is nothing
+  (UPat(Ops.INDEX, src=(UPat.var('x'),)), lambda x: x),
+  # RESHAPE+EXPAND -> STACK
+  (UPat(Ops.EXPAND, src=(UPat(Ops.RESHAPE, src=(UPat.var("x"), UPat())), UPat()), name="out"),
+   lambda x,out: UOp.vectorize(*([x]*out.max_numel())) if out.shape == (out.max_numel(),) else None),
+])
+
+def reduce_ranges_to_acc(ctx:ReduceContext, r:UOp):
+  acc = UOp.placeholder_like(r, ctx.acc_num, AddrSpace.REG)
+  ctx.acc_num += 1
+  topo = r.src[0].toposort()
+  ended_ranges = flatten([x.ended_ranges for x in topo if x.op is Ops.END])
+  input_ranges = tuple(x for x in topo if x.op is Ops.RANGE and x not in r.src[1:] and x not in ended_ranges)
+  acc_init = acc.after(*input_ranges).store(identity_element(r.arg[0], r.dtype.scalar()))
+  acc_initted = acc.after(acc_init, *r.src[1:])
+  inp = r.src[0].reduce(arg=r.arg) if r.arg[1] else r.src[0]
+  acc_out = acc_initted.store(acc_initted.alu(r.arg[0], inp)).end(*r.src[1:])
+  return acc.after(acc_out)
+
+def expand_horizontal_reduce(r:UOp):
+  axes = r.arg[1]
+  vals = [r.src[0].shrink(tuple((idx[axes.index(i)], idx[axes.index(i)]+1) if i in axes else None for i in range(r.src[0].ndim)))
+          for idx in itertools.product(*[range(r.src[0].max_shape[a]) for a in axes])]
+  return functools.reduce(lambda x,y: x.alu(r.arg[0], y), vals)
+
+pm_reduce_local = PatternMatcher([
+  (UPat(Ops.REDUCE, src=(UPat(), UPat()), allow_any_len=True, name="r"), reduce_ranges_to_acc),
+])+pm_clean_up_group_sink
+
+pm_horizontal_reduce = PatternMatcher([
+  (UPat(Ops.REDUCE, src=(UPat(),), name="r"), expand_horizontal_reduce),
+])
+
+# *** memory coalesing ***
+
+def memory_coalesing(sink:UOp):
+  if getenv("DMC"): return sink
+
+  # collect
+  memory: defaultdict[tuple[UOp, UOp, UOp], dict[int, list[UOp]]]  = defaultdict(dict)
+  for u in sink.toposort():
+    if u.op in {Ops.LOAD, Ops.STORE} and u.src[0].addrspace != AddrSpace.REG:
+      assert u.src[0].op is Ops.INDEX
+      buf,idx_u = u.src[0].src
+      idx: Any = idx_u.src[1] if idx_u.op is Ops.WHERE and idx_u.src[2].arg is Invalid else idx_u
+      valid: Any = idx_u.src[0] if idx_u.op is Ops.WHERE and idx_u.src[2].arg is Invalid else None
+      if idx.op is Ops.ADD and idx.src[1].op is Ops.CONST: root_src, arg = idx.src[0], idx.src[1].arg
+      elif idx.op is Ops.ADD and idx.src[0].op is Ops.CONST: root_src, arg = idx.src[1], idx.src[0].arg
+      elif idx.op is Ops.CONST and idx.arg is Invalid: root_src, arg = "INVALID", 0
+      elif idx.op is Ops.CONST: root_src, arg = "CONST", idx.arg
+      else: root_src, arg = idx, 0
+      memory[(u.op, buf, root_src, valid)].setdefault(arg, []).append(u)
+
+  # allowed lengths
+  lengths = [8,4,2,1]
+
+  # build replacements
+  replacements = {}
+  for (op,buf,base,valid),offsets in memory.items():
+    grouped_offsets = [[x for _,x in group] for _,group in itertools.groupby(enumerate(sorted(offsets.keys())), lambda x: x[1]-x[0])]
+    for full_grp in grouped_offsets:
+      while len(full_grp):
+        offset = (base+full_grp[0]) if isinstance(base, UOp) else UOp.const(dtypes.weakint, full_grp[0])
+        length = [l for l in lengths if l <= len(full_grp) and offset.divides(l) is not None][0]
+        grp = full_grp[:length]
+        idx = buf._mop(Ops.SHRINK, arg=[(offset, len(grp))]) if len(grp) > 1 else buf.index(offset)
+        if op is Ops.STORE:
+          datas = []
+          for i,g in enumerate(grp):
+            assert len(offsets[g]) == 1
+            datas.append(offsets[g][0].src[1])
+          data = UOp.vectorize(*datas) if len(datas) > 1 else datas[0]
+          store = idx.store(data, valid) if valid is not None else idx.store(data)
+          for i,g in enumerate(grp): replacements[offsets[g][0]] = store
+        else:
+          ld = idx.load(idx.vconst_like(0), valid) if valid is not None else idx.load()
+          for i,g in enumerate(grp):
+            for oo in offsets[g]:
+              replacements[oo] = ld.index(UOp.const(dtypes.int, i)) if len(grp) > 1 else ld
+        full_grp = full_grp[length:]
+
+  # apply
+  return sink.substitute(replacements, name="memory coalesing")
+

tinygrad/codegen/late/devectorizer.py

@@ -289,7 +289,6 @@ pm_render = PatternMatcher([
   (UPat(Ops.GEP, name='gep'), lambda gep: UOp(Ops.STACK, gep.dtype, tuple(gep.src[0].gep(x) for x in gep.arg)) if len(gep.arg) > 1 else None),
   (UPat(Ops.GEP, name='gep'), lambda gep: gep.src[0] if gep.src[0].dtype.vcount == 1 and gep.arg == (0,) else None),
   (UPat(Ops.STACK, src=(UPat(name='x'),)), lambda x: x),
-  (UPat(Ops.PTRCAT, src=(UPat(name='x'),)), lambda x: x),
 ])
 
 # *** Ops.REDUCE -> Ops.DEFINE_ACC ***
@@ -357,6 +356,21 @@ pm_reduce = PatternMatcher([
     lambda add, wmma: UOp(wmma.op, wmma.dtype, (wmma.src[0], wmma.src[1], wmma.src[2]+add), wmma.arg)),
 ])
 
+# add loads
+
+def add_load(idx:UOp):
+  if isinstance(idx.dtype, PtrDType): return None
+  assert isinstance(idx.src[0].dtype, PtrDType), f"param is not PtrDType {idx.src[0].dtype}"
+  return idx.replace(dtype=idx.src[0].dtype).load(dtype=idx.dtype.base)
+
+pm_add_loads = PatternMatcher([
+  # add loads to non ptr index
+  (UPat(Ops.INDEX, name="idx"), add_load),
+  # remove loads from stores
+  (UPat(Ops.STORE, src=(UPat(Ops.LOAD),), allow_any_len=True, name="s"), lambda s: s.replace(src=(s.src[0].src[0],)+s.src[1:])),
+  (UPat(Ops.LOAD, src=(UPat(Ops.LOAD),), allow_any_len=True, name="l"), lambda l: l.replace(src=(l.src[0].src[0],)+l.src[1:])),
+])
+
 # make images
 
 pm_imageh_store = PatternMatcher([

tinygrad/engine/jit.py

@@ -231,8 +231,7 @@ def _prepare_jit_inputs(args, kwargs):
     it = x if isinstance(x, (tuple,list)) else x.values() if isinstance(x, dict) else []
     tensors += [t for t in it if t.__class__ is Tensor and not any(t is y for y in tensors)]
   def get_input_uops() -> list[UOp]: return flatten([t.uop.src if t.uop.op is Ops.MULTI else [t.uop] for t in tensors])
-  # TODO: drop the CONST branch once all CONST are deviceless
-  if any(u.device is None or u.base.op is Ops.CONST for u in get_input_uops()): raise JitError("JIT inputs must be real buffers; use .clone()")
+  if any(u.device is None for u in get_input_uops()): raise JitError("JIT inputs must be real buffers; use .clone()")
   if len(unrealized_tensors := [x for x in tensors if not x.uop.is_realized]): Tensor.realize(*unrealized_tensors)
   input_uops = get_input_uops()
   # collect buffer UOps (including MultiBuffer)

tinygrad/function.py

@@ -1,26 +1,29 @@
-import functools, itertools, time
+import functools, time
 from typing import Generic, TypeVar, Callable, cast, overload
 from tinygrad.helpers import Context, dedup, getenv, DEBUG
+from tinygrad.dtype import Invalid
 from tinygrad.uop.ops import UOp, Ops, graph_rewrite, PatternMatcher, UPat
 from tinygrad.tensor import Tensor
 from tinygrad.nn.state import get_state_dict
 
 def add_to_ctx(ctx, x:UOp):
+  if x.buf_uop in ctx[1]: return None
   ret = x.param_like(len(ctx[0]))
   ctx[0].append(x)
   return ret
 
-pm_transform_unique_const = PatternMatcher([
-  # transform unique consts to LUNIQUE
-  (UPat(Ops.CONST, src=(UPat(Ops.UNIQUE), UPat(Ops.DEVICE)), name="x"),
-   lambda ctx,x: x.replace(src=(UOp(Ops.LUNIQUE, arg=next(ctx[1])), x.src[1]))),
-])
-
 pm_ctx = PatternMatcher([
   (UPat((Ops.BUFFER, Ops.BIND), name="x"), add_to_ctx),
   (UPat((Ops.AFTER, Ops.CONTIGUOUS), name="x"),
    lambda ctx,x: add_to_ctx(ctx,x) if not x.op_in_backward_slice_with_self(Ops.PARAM) and x.op_in_backward_slice_with_self(Ops.BUFFER) else None),
-])+pm_transform_unique_const
+])
+
+def invalid_outputs(uret:UOp) -> set[UOp]:
+  # invalids() returns fresh write-only scratch: a clone storing CONST(Invalid)
+  # don't capture it as an input; only skip fresh buffers, not realized ones
+  return {u.src[0].buf_uop for u in uret.backward_slice_with_self
+          if u.op is Ops.STORE and u.src[1].base.op is Ops.CONST and u.src[1].base.arg is Invalid
+          and not u.src[0].buf_uop.is_realized}
 
 ReturnType = TypeVar('ReturnType')
 class _function(Generic[ReturnType]):
@@ -63,7 +66,7 @@ class _function(Generic[ReturnType]):
 
     # the BUFFERs that are left are the implicit inputs
     num_explicit = len(call_uops)
-    uret = graph_rewrite(uret, pm_ctx, (call_uops, itertools.count(0)), bottom_up=True, name="get_implicit_inputs")
+    uret = graph_rewrite(uret, pm_ctx, (call_uops, invalid_outputs(uret)), bottom_up=True, name="get_implicit_inputs")
     name = getattr(self.fxn, '__qualname__', None) or type(self.fxn).__qualname__
     if not self.allow_implicit:
       implicit_buffers = [x for x in call_uops[num_explicit:] if x.op is Ops.BUFFER]

tinygrad/helpers.py

@@ -240,6 +240,7 @@ DEV, DEBUG, BEAM, NOOPT = _DEV("DEV", ""), ContextVar("DEBUG", 0), ContextVar("B
 IMAGE, FLOAT16, OPENPILOT_HACKS = ContextVar("IMAGE", 0), ContextVar("FLOAT16", 0), ContextVar("OPENPILOT_HACKS", 0)
 JIT, JIT_BATCH_SIZE = ContextVar("JIT", 2 if OSX and ARCH_X86 else 1), ContextVar("JIT_BATCH_SIZE", 32)
 WINO, CAPTURING, TRACEMETA, NO_COLOR = ContextVar("WINO", 0), ContextVar("CAPTURING", 1), ContextVar("TRACEMETA", 1), ContextVar("NO_COLOR", 0)
+TRAINING = ContextVar("TRAINING", 0)
 USE_TC, TC_SELECT, TC_OPT = ContextVar("TC", 1), ContextVar("TC_SELECT", -1), ContextVar("TC_OPT", 0)
 TRANSCENDENTAL, NOLOCALS = ContextVar("TRANSCENDENTAL", 1), ContextVar("NOLOCALS", 0)
 SPLIT_REDUCEOP, NO_MEMORY_PLANNER, LRU = ContextVar("SPLIT_REDUCEOP", 1), ContextVar("NO_MEMORY_PLANNER", 0), ContextVar("LRU", 1)
@@ -274,7 +275,7 @@ SCACHE = ContextVar("SCACHE", 1)
 # allow use of atomics for embedding backward
 USE_ATOMICS = ContextVar("USE_ATOMICS", 0)
 # don't allow broadcast
-DISALLOW_BROADCAST = ContextVar("DISALLOW_BROADCAST", 1)
+DISALLOW_BROADCAST = ContextVar("DISALLOW_BROADCAST", 0)
 
 @dataclass(frozen=True)
 class Metadata:

tinygrad/mixin/__init__.py

@@ -1,13 +1,13 @@
 from __future__ import annotations
-import functools, itertools
-from typing import TYPE_CHECKING, Callable, Self, Sequence, Literal, get_args
+import functools, itertools, string
+from typing import TYPE_CHECKING, Callable, Self, Sequence, Literal, get_args, cast
 from tinygrad.mixin.elementwise import ElementwiseMixin
 from tinygrad.mixin.movement import MovementMixin
 from tinygrad.mixin.reduce import ReduceMixin
 from tinygrad.uop import Ops
 from tinygrad.uop.ops import _broadcast_shape, resolve, smax, smin, identity_element
 from tinygrad.dtype import ConstType, DTypeLike, PtrDType, PyConst, dtypes, least_upper_dtype, sum_acc_dtype, to_dtype
-from tinygrad.helpers import all_int, argfix, ceildiv, flatten, flat_to_grouped, fully_flatten, get_shape, make_tuple, prod
+from tinygrad.helpers import all_int, argfix, argsort, ceildiv, flatten, flat_to_grouped, fully_flatten, get_shape, make_tuple, merge_dicts, prod
 from tinygrad.helpers import resolve_pool_pads, round_up
 
 if TYPE_CHECKING:
@@ -17,35 +17,59 @@ ReductionStr = Literal["mean", "sum", "none"]
 
 
 class OpMixin(ElementwiseMixin, ReduceMixin):
-  @staticmethod
-  def const(dtype, b): raise NotImplementedError
+  def data(self) -> memoryview: raise NotImplementedError("data requires Tensor realization to host memory")
 
-  @classmethod
-  def full(cls, shape:tuple[sint, ...], fill_value:ConstType|UOp, dtype:DTypeLike|None=None,
-           device:str|tuple[str, ...]|None=None, buffer=True) -> Self:
+  def item(self) -> PyConst:
     """
-    Creates a tensor with the given shape, filled with the given value.
-
-    You can pass in `dtype` and `device` keyword arguments to control the data type and device of the tensor.
-    Pass `buffer=False` to get a broadcast const value instead of a materialized buffer.
+    Returns the value of this tensor as a standard Python number.
 
     ```python exec="true" source="above" session="tensor" result="python"
-    print(Tensor.full((2, 3), 42).numpy())
-    ```
-    ```python exec="true" source="above" session="tensor" result="python"
-    print(Tensor.full((2, 3), False).numpy())
+    t = Tensor(42)
+    print(t.item())
     ```
     """
-    # TODO: enable this check
-    # if not buffer: assert device is None, "buffer=False does not support device specification"
-    from tinygrad.uop.ops import UOp
-    new_shape = argfix(shape)
-    dt = to_dtype(dtype) if dtype is not None else None
-    val = cls.const(dt or (fill_value.dtype if isinstance(fill_value, UOp) else dtypes.from_py(fill_value)), fill_value)
-    val = val.reshape((1,)*len(new_shape)).expand(new_shape)
-    return val.clone(device=device) if buffer else val
+    assert self.numel() == 1, "must have one element for item"
+    return self.data()[(0,) * len(self.shape)]
 
-  def __getitem__(self, indices) -> Self: return self._getitem(indices)
+  def __getitem__(self, indices) -> Self:
+    """
+    Retrieves a sub-tensor using indexing.
+
+    Supported Index Types: `int | slice | Tensor | None | list | tuple | Ellipsis`
+
+    Examples:
+    ```python exec="true" source="above" session="tensor" result="python"
+    t = Tensor.arange(12).reshape(3, 4)
+    print(t.numpy())
+    ```
+
+    - Int Indexing: Select an element or sub-tensor using integers for each dimension.
+      ```python exec="true" source="above" session="tensor" result="python"
+      print(t[1, 2].numpy())
+      ```
+
+    - Slice Indexing: Select a range of elements using slice notation (`start:end:stride`).
+      ```python exec="true" source="above" session="tensor" result="python"
+      print(t[0:2, ::2].numpy())
+      ```
+
+    - Tensor Indexing: Use another tensor as indices for advanced indexing. Using `tuple` or `list` here also works.
+      ```python exec="true" source="above" session="tensor" result="python"
+      print(t[Tensor([2, 0, 1]), Tensor([1, 2, 3])].numpy())
+      ```
+
+    - `None` Indexing: Add a new dimension to the tensor.
+      ```python exec="true" source="above" session="tensor" result="python"
+      print(t[:, None].shape)
+      ```
+
+    NOTE: Out-of-bounds indexing results in a value of `0`.
+    ```python exec="true" source="above" session="tensor" result="python"
+    t = Tensor([1, 2, 3])
+    print(t[Tensor([4, 3, 2])].numpy())
+    ```
+    """
+    return self._getitem(indices)
 
   def _getitem(self, indices, v=None) -> Self:
     from tinygrad.uop.ops import UOp
@@ -138,40 +162,6 @@ class OpMixin(ElementwiseMixin, ReduceMixin):
     vb = vb.pad(tuple((m['boundary'][0], self.shape[d] - m['boundary'][1]) for d, m in enumerate(mops)))
     return (type(self).uprod(*per_dim) if per_dim else type(self).const(dtypes.bool, True)).where(vb, self)
 
-  @classmethod
-  def zeros(cls, *shape, **kwargs) -> Self:
-    """
-    Creates a tensor with the given shape, filled with zeros.
-
-    You can pass in `dtype` and `device` keyword arguments to control the data type and device of the tensor.
-    Additionally, all other keyword arguments are passed to the constructor of the tensor.
-
-    ```python exec="true" source="above" session="tensor" result="python"
-    print(Tensor.zeros(2, 3).numpy())
-    ```
-    ```python exec="true" source="above" session="tensor" result="python"
-    print(Tensor.zeros(2, 3, dtype=dtypes.int32).numpy())
-    ```
-    """
-    return cls.full(argfix(*shape), 0.0, **kwargs)
-
-  @classmethod
-  def ones(cls, *shape, **kwargs) -> Self:
-    """
-    Creates a tensor with the given shape, filled with ones.
-
-    You can pass in `dtype` and `device` keyword arguments to control the data type and device of the tensor.
-    Additionally, all other keyword arguments are passed to the constructor of the tensor.
-
-    ```python exec="true" source="above" session="tensor" result="python"
-    print(Tensor.ones(2, 3).numpy())
-    ```
-    ```python exec="true" source="above" session="tensor" result="python"
-    print(Tensor.ones(2, 3, dtype=dtypes.int32).numpy())
-    ```
-    """
-    return cls.full(argfix(*shape), 1.0, **kwargs)
-
   @classmethod
   def arange(cls, start, stop=None, step=1, dtype:DTypeLike|None=None) -> Self:
     """
@@ -367,7 +357,7 @@ class OpMixin(ElementwiseMixin, ReduceMixin):
     if mode in {"reflect", "replicate"}: return self._pad_reflect_replicate(pX, mode)
     raise NotImplementedError(f"{mode=} is not supported")
 
-  def _broadcasted(self, y, reverse=False) -> tuple[Self, Self]:
+  def _broadcasted(self, y:Self|ConstType|UOp, reverse:bool=False) -> tuple[Self, Self]:
     if not isinstance(y, type(self)): y = self.ufix(y)
     x, y = (self, y) if not reverse else (y, self)
     # ValueError: unsized ptr has shape (-1,) which can't broadcast; RuntimeError: shape mismatch
@@ -423,6 +413,47 @@ class OpMixin(ElementwiseMixin, ReduceMixin):
   def __matmul__(self, x:Self) -> Self: return self.matmul(x)
   def __rmatmul__(self, x:Self) -> Self: return self.matmul(x, True)
 
+  @classmethod
+  def einsum(cls, formula:str, *operands:Self|Sequence[Self], dtype:DTypeLike|None=None) -> Self:
+    """
+    Sums the product of the elements of the input tensors according to a formula based on the Einstein summation convention.
+
+    See: https://pytorch.org/docs/stable/generated/torch.einsum.html
+
+    ```python exec="true" source="above" session="tensor" result="python"
+    x = Tensor([[1, 2], [3, 4]])
+    y = Tensor([[5, 6], [7, 8]])
+    print(Tensor.einsum("ij,ij->", x, y).numpy())
+    ```
+    """
+    xs, formula = list(argfix(*operands)), formula.replace(" ", "")
+    # expand ellipsis to letters, determine output
+    if "..." in formula:
+      ell, lhs = "".join(c for c in string.ascii_letters if c not in formula), (formula.split("->") + [""])[0]
+      ell_n = [max(0, x.ndim - len(s) + 3) if "..." in s else 0 for s, x in zip(lhs.split(","), xs)]
+      for i, (s, x) in enumerate(zip(inputs := lhs.split(","), xs)): inputs[i] = s.replace("...", ell[max(ell_n)-ell_n[i]:max(ell_n)])
+      lhs, auto = ",".join(inputs), "".join(sorted(c for c in lhs if lhs.count(c) == 1 and c.isalpha() and c not in ell))
+      formula = f"{lhs}->{formula.split('->')[1].replace('...', ell[:max(ell_n)]) if '->' in formula else ell[:max(ell_n)] + auto}"
+    lhs, rhs = formula.split("->") if "->" in formula else (formula, "".join(sorted(c for c in formula if formula.count(c)==1 and c.isalpha())))
+    inputs = lhs.split(",")
+    if len(xs) != len(inputs): raise ValueError(f"number of operands doesn't match, expected {len(inputs)}, got {len(xs)}")
+    # trace: take diagonal when letter repeats in single input
+    for i, (s, x) in enumerate(zip(inputs, xs)):
+      for c in set(s):
+        while s.count(c) > 1:
+          j, k, n = s.index(c), s.index(c, s.index(c)+1), cast(int, x.shape[s.index(c)])
+          perm = [d for d in range(x.ndim) if d not in (j,k)]+[j,k]
+          x = x.permute(perm).flatten(-2).pad(((0,0),)*(x.ndim-2)+((0,n),)).unflatten(-1,(n,n+1))[...,0] if x.ndim > 2 else x.diagonal()
+          s = s[:k] + s[k+1:]
+      inputs[i], xs[i] = s, x
+    # check sizes and build sorted alphabet
+    sz = merge_dicts([dict(zip(s, x.shape)) for s, x in zip(inputs, xs)])
+    alpha = sorted(sz)
+    # align all tensors to alphabet, multiply, sum non-output, permute to output order
+    xs = [x.permute(*[s.index(c) for c in sorted(s)]).reshape([sz[c] if c in s else 1 for c in alpha]).expand([sz[c] for c in alpha]) if s else x
+          for s, x in zip(inputs, xs)]
+    return xs[0].uprod(*xs[1:]).sum([i for i,c in enumerate(alpha) if c not in rhs], dtype=dtype).permute(argsort(argsort(list(rhs))))
+
   def gradient(self, *targets:Self, gradient:Self|None=None) -> list[Self]:
     """
     Computes the gradient of the targets with respect to self.
@@ -1147,6 +1178,68 @@ class OpMixin(ElementwiseMixin, ReduceMixin):
     # select from values for each True element in mask else select from self
     return mask.where(values, self)
 
+  def masked_select(self, mask, size:int|None=None, fill_value:ConstType=0):
+    """
+    Selects elements from `self` based on the boolean `mask`.
+
+    With `size=None` (default), output length equals the number of `True` values (not jittable).
+    With `size=N`, output length is `N`, padded with `fill_value` or truncated (jittable).
+
+    ```python exec="true" source="above" session="tensor" result="python"
+    t = Tensor([[0, 1, 2], [3, 4, 5], [6, 7, 8]])
+    mask = Tensor([[True, False, True], [False, True, False], [False, False, True]])
+    print(t.numpy())
+    print(mask.numpy())
+    ```
+    ```python exec="true" source="above" session="tensor" result="python"
+    print(t.masked_select(mask).numpy())
+    ```
+    ```python exec="true" source="above" session="tensor" result="python"
+    print(t.masked_select(mask, size=6, fill_value=-1).numpy())
+    ```
+    """
+    if not dtypes.is_bool(mask.dtype): raise RuntimeError(f"masked_select expects bool mask tensor, got {mask.dtype}")
+    x, mask = self.flatten(), mask._broadcast_to(self.shape).flatten()
+    mask_cumsum = mask.cumsum()
+    if size is None:
+      counts = type(self).zeros(mask_cumsum[-1].item() if mask.numel() else 0, dtype=dtypes.int32, buffer=False)
+      return x[counts.scatter(0, mask_cumsum, 1, reduce='add').cumsum()]
+    counts = type(self).zeros(size, dtype=dtypes.int32, buffer=False).scatter(0, mask_cumsum, 1, reduce='add')
+    return (type(self).arange(size) < mask.sum()).where(x[counts.cumsum()], fill_value).cast(self.dtype)
+
+  def nonzero(self, size:int|None=None, fill_value:ConstType=0) -> Self:
+    """
+    Returns the indices of the elements that are non-zero.
+
+    With `size=None` (default), output shape is `(n_nonzero, ndim)` (not jittable).
+    With `size=N`, output shape is `(N, ndim)`, padded with `fill_value` or truncated (jittable).
+
+    ```python exec="true" source="above" session="tensor" result="python"
+    t = Tensor([1, 0, 2, 0, 3])
+    print(t.numpy())
+    ```
+    ```python exec="true" source="above" session="tensor" result="python"
+    print(t.nonzero().numpy())
+    ```
+    ```python exec="true" source="above" session="tensor" result="python"
+    t = Tensor([[1, 0], [0, 2]])
+    print(t.numpy())
+    ```
+    ```python exec="true" source="above" session="tensor" result="python"
+    print(t.nonzero().numpy())
+    ```
+    ```python exec="true" source="above" session="tensor" result="python"
+    print(t.nonzero(size=3, fill_value=-1).numpy())
+    ```
+    """
+    if self.ndim == 0:
+      return type(self).zeros(size if size is not None else int(self.ne(0).item()), 0, dtype=dtypes.int32, device=self.device)
+    mask = self.ne(0).flatten()
+    indices = type(self).stack(*[type(self).arange(s).reshape(*[1]*i, s, *[1]*(self.ndim-i-1)).expand(self.shape).flatten()
+                             for i, s in enumerate(self.shape)], dim=-1)
+    return indices.masked_select(mask.unsqueeze(-1).expand(*mask.shape, self.ndim),
+                                 size=size*self.ndim if size is not None else None, fill_value=fill_value).reshape(-1, self.ndim)
+
   # ***** functional nn ops *****
 
   def sequential(self, ll:list[Callable[[Self], Self]]) -> Self:

tinygrad/mixin/creation.py

@@ -1,13 +1,101 @@
-from typing import Self
-from tinygrad.dtype import ConstType, DType
+from typing import TYPE_CHECKING, Callable, Self
+from tinygrad.dtype import ConstType, DTypeLike, Invalid, dtypes, to_dtype
+from tinygrad.helpers import argfix
+from tinygrad.mixin.dtype import DTypeMixin
+from tinygrad.mixin.movement import MovementMixin
 
-class CreationMixin:
-  def const_like(self, b: ConstType) -> Self: raise NotImplementedError
-  def cast(self, dtype: DType) -> Self: raise NotImplementedError
+if TYPE_CHECKING:
+  from tinygrad.uop.ops import sint, UOp
 
-  def full_like(self, fill_value: ConstType, dtype: DType|None=None) -> Self:
-    """Creates a tensor with the same shape as `self`, filled with the given value."""
-    return self.const_like(fill_value) if dtype is None else self.const_like(fill_value).cast(dtype)
+class CreationMixin(DTypeMixin, MovementMixin):
+  @staticmethod
+  def const(dtype, b): raise NotImplementedError
+
+  def const_like(self, b: ConstType) -> Self: return self._wrap_uop(self._uop.const_like(b))
+
+  def _multi_like(self, fxn:'Callable[[tuple[sint, ...], str|None], Self]') -> Self:
+    from tinygrad.uop.ops import UOp
+    assert isinstance(self.device, tuple), f"_multi_like needs a multi device tensor, got {self.device}"
+    if self._uop.axis is None: return self._wrap_uop(fxn(self.shape, None)._uop.shard(self.device, None))
+    return self._wrap_uop(UOp.mstack(*[fxn(self._uop.shard_shape, d)._uop for d in self.device]).multi(self._uop.axis))
+
+  def empty_like(self, dtype: DTypeLike|None=None, device: str|tuple[str, ...]|None=None) -> Self:
+    """
+    Creates an empty tensor with the same shape as `self`.
+    If `dtype` is not specified, the dtype of `self` is used.
+    """
+    return self._wrap_uop(self._uop.empty_like(dtype, device))
+
+  @classmethod
+  def invalids(cls, *shape, device:str|tuple[str, ...]|None=None, dtype:DTypeLike|None=None) -> Self:
+    """
+    Creates a tensor with the given shape, filled with Invalid.
+
+    This is an alternative to Tensor.empty when you want an "anonymous" buffer.
+
+    Eventually Tensor.empty will be replaced by this.
+    """
+    return cls.full(argfix(*shape), Invalid, dtype=dtype, device=device)
+
+  @classmethod
+  def full(cls, shape:'tuple[sint, ...]', fill_value:'ConstType|UOp', dtype:DTypeLike|None=None,
+           device:str|tuple[str, ...]|None=None, buffer=True) -> Self:
+    """
+    Creates a tensor with the given shape, filled with the given value.
+
+    You can pass in `dtype` and `device` keyword arguments to control the data type and device of the tensor.
+    Pass `buffer=False` to get a broadcast const value instead of a materialized buffer.
+
+    ```python exec="true" source="above" session="tensor" result="python"
+    print(Tensor.full((2, 3), 42).numpy())
+    ```
+    ```python exec="true" source="above" session="tensor" result="python"
+    print(Tensor.full((2, 3), False).numpy())
+    ```
+    """
+    # TODO: enable this check
+    # if not buffer: assert device is None, "buffer=False does not support device specification"
+    from tinygrad.uop.ops import UOp
+    new_shape = argfix(shape)
+    dt = to_dtype(dtype) if dtype is not None else None
+    val = cls.const(dt or (fill_value.dtype if isinstance(fill_value, UOp) else dtypes.from_py(fill_value)), fill_value)
+    val = val.reshape((1,)*len(new_shape)).expand(new_shape)
+    return val.clone(device=device) if buffer else val
+
+  def full_like(self, fill_value:ConstType, dtype:DTypeLike|None=None, device:str|tuple[str, ...]|None=None, buffer=True) -> Self:
+    """
+    Creates a tensor with the same shape as `self`, filled with the given value.
+    If `dtype` is not specified, the dtype of `self` is used.
+
+    You can pass in the `device` keyword argument to control device of the tensor.
+    Pass `buffer=False` to get a broadcast const value instead of a materialized buffer.
+
+    ```python exec="true" source="above" session="tensor" result="python"
+    t = Tensor.ones(2, 3)
+    print(Tensor.full_like(t, 42).numpy())
+    ```
+    """
+    if isinstance(self.device, tuple):
+      if device is not None: raise RuntimeError("cannot specify `device` on `*_like` of a multi device tensor")
+      return self._multi_like(lambda shape, dev: type(self).full(shape, fill_value, dtype=dtype or self.dtype, device=dev, buffer=buffer))
+    return type(self).full(self.shape, fill_value, dtype=dtype or self.dtype, device=self.device if device is None else device, buffer=buffer)
+
+  @classmethod
+  def zeros(cls, *shape, **kwargs) -> Self:
+    """
+    Creates a tensor with the given shape, filled with zeros.
+
+    You can pass in `dtype` and `device` keyword arguments to control the data type and device of the tensor.
+    Additionally, all other keyword arguments are passed to the constructor of the tensor.
+
+    ```python exec="true" source="above" session="tensor" result="python"
+    print(Tensor.zeros(2, 3).numpy())
+    ```
+    ```python exec="true" source="above" session="tensor" result="python"
+    print(Tensor.zeros(2, 3, dtype=dtypes.int32).numpy())
+    ```
+    """
+    return cls.full(argfix(*shape), 0.0, **kwargs)
 
   def zeros_like(self, **kwargs) -> Self:
     """
@@ -22,6 +110,23 @@ class CreationMixin:
     """
     return self.full_like(0, **kwargs)
 
+  @classmethod
+  def ones(cls, *shape, **kwargs) -> Self:
+    """
+    Creates a tensor with the given shape, filled with ones.
+
+    You can pass in `dtype` and `device` keyword arguments to control the data type and device of the tensor.
+    Additionally, all other keyword arguments are passed to the constructor of the tensor.
+
+    ```python exec="true" source="above" session="tensor" result="python"
+    print(Tensor.ones(2, 3).numpy())
+    ```
+    ```python exec="true" source="above" session="tensor" result="python"
+    print(Tensor.ones(2, 3, dtype=dtypes.int32).numpy())
+    ```
+    """
+    return cls.full(argfix(*shape), 1.0, **kwargs)
+
   def ones_like(self, **kwargs) -> Self:
     """
     Creates a tensor with the same shape as `self`, filled with ones.

tinygrad/mixin/dtype.py

@@ -1,13 +1,36 @@
-from typing import Self
-from tinygrad.dtype import DType, dtypes
+from typing import TYPE_CHECKING, Self
+from tinygrad.dtype import DType, DTypeLike, dtypes, to_dtype
+
+if TYPE_CHECKING:
+  from tinygrad.uop.ops import UOp
 
 class DTypeMixin:
   @property
   def dtype(self) -> DType: raise NotImplementedError
+  @property
+  def _uop(self) -> 'UOp': raise NotImplementedError
+  def _wrap_uop(self, u:'UOp') -> Self: raise NotImplementedError
 
-  def cast(self, dtype:DType) -> Self: raise NotImplementedError
+  def cast(self, dtype:DTypeLike) -> Self:
+    """
+    Casts `self` to the given `dtype`.
 
-  def bitcast(self, dtype:DType) -> Self: raise NotImplementedError
+    ```python exec="true" source="above" session="tensor" result="python"
+    t = Tensor([-1, 2.5, 3], dtype=dtypes.float)
+    print(t.dtype, t.numpy())
+    ```
+    ```python exec="true" source="above" session="tensor" result="python"
+    t = t.cast(dtypes.int32)
+    print(t.dtype, t.numpy())
+    ```
+    ```python exec="true" source="above" session="tensor" result="python"
+    t = t.cast(dtypes.uint8)
+    print(t.dtype, t.numpy())
+    ```
+    """
+    return self if self.dtype == (dt:=to_dtype(dtype)) else self._wrap_uop(self._uop.cast(dt))
+
+  def bitcast(self, dtype:DTypeLike) -> Self: raise NotImplementedError
 
   def element_size(self) -> int:
     """

tinygrad/mixin/elementwise.py

@@ -3,23 +3,17 @@ from typing import TYPE_CHECKING, Literal, Self
 from tinygrad.uop import Ops
 from tinygrad.dtype import dtypes, ConstType, PyConst, least_upper_dtype, least_upper_float
 from tinygrad.helpers import argfix, polyN
-from tinygrad.mixin.dtype import DTypeMixin
 from tinygrad.mixin.creation import CreationMixin
 
 if TYPE_CHECKING:
   from tinygrad.uop.ops import UOp
 
 
-class ElementwiseMixin(DTypeMixin, CreationMixin):
+class ElementwiseMixin(CreationMixin):
   # required to implement
   def alu(self, op: Ops, *src: Self) -> Self:
     raise NotImplementedError
 
-  @property
-  def _uop(self) -> 'UOp': raise NotImplementedError
-
-  def _wrap_uop(self, u: 'UOp') -> Self: raise NotImplementedError
-
   # great functions you get!
   def ufix(self, x: 'Self|ConstType|UOp') -> Self:
     return x if isinstance(x, type(self)) else self._wrap_uop(self._uop.ufix(x))
@@ -51,7 +45,11 @@ class ElementwiseMixin(DTypeMixin, CreationMixin):
     """
     return self.cast(dtypes.bool).ne(True)
 
-  def contiguous(self, *args, **kwargs) -> Self: raise NotImplementedError
+  def contiguous(self, **kwargs) -> Self:
+    """
+    Returns a contiguous tensor.
+    """
+    return self._wrap_uop(self._uop.contiguous(**kwargs))
 
   def contiguous_backward(self) -> Self:
     """

tinygrad/mixin/gradient.py

@@ -1,6 +1,6 @@
 from typing import cast
-import math, dataclasses, itertools
-from tinygrad.uop.ops import UOp, PatternMatcher, UPat, Ops, all_metadata, graph_rewrite
+import math, dataclasses
+from tinygrad.uop.ops import UOp, PatternMatcher, UPat, Ops, all_metadata
 from tinygrad.helpers import argsort
 from tinygrad.dtype import sum_acc_dtype
 
@@ -33,7 +33,7 @@ def call_gradient(ctx:UOp, k:UOp, needed:set[int]) -> tuple[UOp|None, ...]:
   params = {x.arg.slot:x for x in fxn.toposort(enter_calls=False) if x.op == Ops.PARAM}
   grad_args = ctx.src
   root_grad = UOp(Ops.TUPLE, src=tuple(UOp(Ops.NOOP) if g.op is Ops.NOOP else
-    g if g.base.op is Ops.CONST and g.device is None else g.param_like(len(args)+i) for i,g in enumerate(grad_args)))
+    g if g.base.op is Ops.CONST else g.param_like(len(args)+i) for i,g in enumerate(grad_args)))
   grads = compute_gradient(fxn, root_grad, set(params.values()))
   # for precompiled calls, substitute forward outputs with params so intermediates aren't recomputed
   fwd_subs = {src: src.param_like(len(args)+len(grad_args)+i) for i, src in enumerate(fxn.src)} if k.arg.precompile else {}
@@ -42,9 +42,6 @@ def call_gradient(ctx:UOp, k:UOp, needed:set[int]) -> tuple[UOp|None, ...]:
   grad_bodies = [(i, grads[p]) for i in needed if (p:=params.get(i)) is not None and p in grads]
   bwd_body = UOp.maketuple(*(gb for _, gb in grad_bodies)).substitute(fwd_subs, walk=True)
   bwd_body, compact_args = _compact_params(bwd_body, (*args, *grad_args, *fwd_outs))
-  # TODO: is this okay here?
-  from tinygrad.function import pm_transform_unique_const
-  bwd_body = graph_rewrite(bwd_body, pm_transform_unique_const, ctx=(None, itertools.count(0)))
   bwd_call = bwd_body.call(*compact_args, name=(k.arg.name or "")+"_backward", precompile=k.arg.precompile_backward)
   gb_map = {i: idx for idx, (i, _) in enumerate(grad_bodies)}
   return (None,) + tuple(bwd_call.gettuple(gb_map[i]) if i in gb_map else None for i in range(len(args)))

tinygrad/mixin/rand.py

@@ -1,8 +1,10 @@
 from __future__ import annotations
-from typing import Self
-from tinygrad.dtype import DType, dtypes
-from tinygrad.helpers import ceildiv, prod
+import math
+from typing import Self, cast
+from tinygrad.dtype import DType, DTypeLike, dtypes, least_upper_dtype, to_dtype
+from tinygrad.helpers import all_int, argfix, ceildiv, prod, TRAINING
 from tinygrad.mixin import OpMixin
+from tinygrad.device import canonicalize_device
 
 
 class RandMixin(OpMixin):
@@ -39,3 +41,286 @@ class RandMixin(OpMixin):
     bits = cls.random_bits(key, counter, ceildiv(prod(shape) * dtype.itemsize, 4))
     out = cls._bits_to_rand(bits, shape, dtype)
     return out.contiguous() if contiguous else out
+
+  @staticmethod
+  def _next_counter(device:str, num:int):
+    raise NotImplementedError("_next_counter requires the stateful per-device RNG counter, only implemented on Tensor")
+
+  @classmethod
+  def rand(cls, *shape, device:str|None=None, dtype:DTypeLike|None=None, contiguous:bool=True) -> Self:
+    """
+    Creates a tensor with the given shape, filled with random values from a uniform distribution over the interval `[0, 1)`.
+
+    You can pass in `dtype` and `device` keyword arguments to control the data type and device of the tensor.
+
+    ```python exec="true" source="above" session="tensor" result="python"
+    Tensor.manual_seed(42)
+    t = Tensor.rand(2, 3)
+    print(t.numpy())
+    ```
+    """
+    dt = to_dtype(dtype or dtypes.default_float)
+    if not dtypes.is_float(dt): raise ValueError(f"rand only supports float dtypes, got {dt}")
+    if not all_int(shape:=argfix(*shape)) or not all(s >= 0 for s in shape): raise ValueError(f"invalid input {shape=}")
+    if device is not None and not isinstance(device, str): raise ValueError(f"rand only supports single device, got {device=}")
+    device = cast(str, canonicalize_device(device))
+    key, counter = cls._next_counter(device, ceildiv(prod(shape) * dt.itemsize, 4))
+    return cls._rand(key, counter, shape, dt, contiguous=contiguous)
+
+  def rand_like(self, **kwargs) -> Self:
+    """
+    Creates a tensor with the same shape and sharding as `self`, filled with random values from a uniform distribution over the interval `[0, 1)`.
+
+    You can pass in `dtype` and `device` keyword arguments to control the data type and device of the tensor.
+    Additionally, all other keyword arguments are passed to the constructor of the tensor.
+
+    ```python exec="true" source="above" session="tensor" result="python"
+    t = Tensor.ones(2, 3)
+    print(Tensor.rand_like(t).numpy())
+    ```
+    """
+    if isinstance(self.device, tuple):
+      if kwargs.pop("device", None) is not None: raise RuntimeError("cannot specify `device` on `*_like` of a multi device tensor")
+      dtype = kwargs.pop("dtype", self.dtype)
+      return self._multi_like(lambda shape, dev: type(self).rand(*shape, dtype=dtype, device=dev, **kwargs))
+    return type(self).rand(*self.shape, device=kwargs.pop("device", self.device), dtype=kwargs.pop("dtype", self.dtype), **kwargs)
+
+  def randn_like(self, dtype:DTypeLike|None=None, **kwargs) -> Self:
+    """
+    Creates a tensor with the same shape and sharding as `self`, filled with random values from a normal distribution with mean 0 and variance 1.
+
+    You can pass in `dtype` and `device` keyword arguments to control the data type and device of the tensor.
+    Additionally, all other keyword arguments are passed to the constructor of the tensor.
+
+    ```python exec="true" source="above" session="tensor" result="python"
+    t = Tensor.ones(2, 3)
+    print(Tensor.randn_like(t).numpy())
+    ```
+    """
+    src = self.stack(self).rand_like(**{**kwargs, "dtype": dtypes.float32})
+    # https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Box%E2%80%93Muller_transform
+    return src[0].mul(2*math.pi).cos().mul((1 - src[1]).log().mul(-2).sqrt()).cast(to_dtype(dtype or self.dtype))
+
+  @classmethod
+  def randn(cls, *shape, dtype:DTypeLike|None=None, **kwargs) -> Self:
+    """
+    Creates a tensor with the given shape, filled with random values from a normal distribution with mean `0` and standard deviation `1`.
+    If `dtype` is not specified, the default type is used.
+
+    You can pass in the `device` keyword argument to control device of the tensor.
+    Additionally, all other keyword arguments are passed to the constructor of the tensor.
+
+    ```python exec="true" source="above" session="tensor" result="python"
+    Tensor.manual_seed(42)
+    print(Tensor.randn(2, 3).numpy())
+    ```
+    """
+    return cls.empty(*shape, **kwargs).randn_like(dtype=dtype)  # type: ignore[attr-defined]
+
+  @classmethod
+  def randint(cls, *shape, low=0, high=10, dtype=dtypes.int32, **kwargs) -> Self:
+    """
+    Creates a tensor with the given shape, filled with random integer values generated uniformly from the interval `[low, high)`.
+    Requires `low < high`. If `dtype` is not specified, the default type is used.
+
+    You can pass in the `device` keyword argument to control device of the tensor.
+    Additionally, all other keyword arguments are passed to the constructor of the tensor.
+
+    ```python exec="true" source="above" session="tensor" result="python"
+    Tensor.manual_seed(42)
+    print(Tensor.randint(2, 3, low=5, high=10).numpy())
+    ```
+    """
+    if not all_int([low, high]): raise TypeError(f"{low=} and {high=} must be integers")
+    if not dtypes.is_int(dtype := to_dtype(dtype)): raise TypeError(f"{dtype=} must be int")
+    if low >= high: raise ValueError(f"Tensor.randint requires low < high, got {low=}, {high=}")
+    return cls.uniform(*shape, low=low, high=high, dtype=dtype, **kwargs)
+
+  @classmethod
+  def normal(cls, *shape, mean=0.0, std=1.0, **kwargs) -> Self:
+    """
+    Creates a tensor with the given shape, filled with random values from a normal distribution with the given `mean` and standard deviation `std`.
+    Requires `std >= 0`.
+
+    You can pass in `dtype` and `device` keyword arguments to control the data type and device of the tensor.
+    Additionally, all other keyword arguments are passed to the constructor of the tensor.
+
+    ```python exec="true" source="above" session="tensor" result="python"
+    Tensor.manual_seed(42)
+    print(Tensor.normal(2, 3, mean=10, std=2).numpy())
+    ```
+    """
+    if std < 0: raise ValueError(f"Tensor.normal requires std >= 0, got {std=}")
+    return std * cls.randn(*shape, **kwargs) + mean
+
+  @classmethod
+  def uniform(cls, *shape, low=0.0, high=1.0, dtype:DTypeLike|None=None, **kwargs) -> Self:
+    """
+    Creates a tensor with the given shape, filled with random values from a uniform distribution over the interval `[low, high)`.
+    Requires `low < high`.
+
+    You can pass in `dtype` and `device` keyword arguments to control the data type and device of the tensor.
+    Additionally, all other keyword arguments are passed to the constructor of the tensor.
+
+    ```python exec="true" source="above" session="tensor" result="python"
+    Tensor.manual_seed(42)
+    print(Tensor.uniform(2, 3, low=2, high=10).numpy())
+    ```
+    """
+    if not all_int(shape:=argfix(*shape)) or not all(s >= 0 for s in shape): raise ValueError(f"invalid input {shape=}")
+    if low >= high: raise ValueError(f"Tensor.uniform requires low < high, got {low=}, {high=}")
+    return ((high-low) * cls.rand(*shape, **kwargs)).cast(dtype or dtypes.default_float) + low
+
+  @classmethod
+  def scaled_uniform(cls, *shape, **kwargs) -> Self:
+    """
+    Creates a tensor with the given shape, filled with random values from a uniform distribution
+    over the interval `[-prod(shape)**-0.5, prod(shape)**-0.5)`.
+
+    You can pass in `dtype` and `device` keyword arguments to control the data type and device of the tensor.
+    Additionally, all other keyword arguments are passed to the constructor of the tensor.
+
+    ```python exec="true" source="above" session="tensor" result="python"
+    Tensor.manual_seed(42)
+    print(Tensor.scaled_uniform(2, 3).numpy())
+    ```
+    """
+    return cls.uniform(*shape, low=-1.0, high=1.0, **kwargs).mul(prod(argfix(*shape))**-0.5)
+
+  @classmethod
+  def glorot_uniform(cls, *shape, **kwargs) -> Self:
+    """
+    <https://www.tensorflow.org/api_docs/python/tf/keras/initializers/GlorotUniform>
+
+    You can pass in `dtype` and `device` keyword arguments to control the data type and device of the tensor.
+    Additionally, all other keyword arguments are passed to the constructor of the tensor.
+
+    ```python exec="true" source="above" session="tensor" result="python"
+    Tensor.manual_seed(42)
+    print(Tensor.glorot_uniform(2, 3).numpy())
+    ```
+    """
+    bound = (6 / (argfix(*shape)[0]+prod(argfix(*shape)[1:]))) ** 0.5
+    return cls.uniform(*shape, low=-bound, high=bound, **kwargs)
+
+  @classmethod
+  def kaiming_uniform(cls, *shape, a:float = 0.01, **kwargs) -> Self:
+    """
+    <https://pytorch.org/docs/stable/_modules/torch/nn/init.html#kaiming_uniform_>
+
+    You can pass in `dtype` and `device` keyword arguments to control the data type and device of the tensor.
+    Additionally, all other keyword arguments are passed to the constructor of the tensor.
+
+    ```python exec="true" source="above" session="tensor" result="python"
+    Tensor.manual_seed(42)
+    print(Tensor.kaiming_uniform(2, 3).numpy())
+    ```
+    """
+    bound = (6 / (1 + a ** 2) / prod(argfix(*shape)[1:])) ** 0.5
+    return cls.uniform(*shape, low=-bound, high=bound, **kwargs)
+
+  @classmethod
+  def kaiming_normal(cls, *shape, a:float = 0.01, **kwargs) -> Self:
+    """
+    <https://pytorch.org/docs/stable/_modules/torch/nn/init.html#kaiming_normal_>
+
+    You can pass in `dtype` and `device` keyword arguments to control the data type and device of the tensor.
+    Additionally, all other keyword arguments are passed to the constructor of the tensor.
+
+    ```python exec="true" source="above" session="tensor" result="python"
+    Tensor.manual_seed(42)
+    print(Tensor.kaiming_normal(2, 3).numpy())
+    ```
+    """
+    std = (2 / (1 + a ** 2) / prod(argfix(*shape)[1:])) ** 0.5
+    return cls.normal(*shape, mean=0.0, std=std, **kwargs)
+
+  @classmethod
+  def randperm(cls, n:int, device=None, dtype=dtypes.int32, **kwargs) -> Self:
+    """
+    Returns a tensor with a random permutation of integers from `0` to `n-1`.
+
+    ```python exec="true" source="above" session="tensor" result="python"
+    Tensor.manual_seed(42)
+    print(Tensor.randperm(6).numpy())
+    ```
+    """
+    return cls.rand(n, device=device, **kwargs).argsort().cast(dtype)
+
+  def multinomial(self, num_samples:int = 1, replacement:bool = False) -> Self:
+    """
+    Returns a tensor with `num_samples` indices sampled from a multinomial distribution weighted by `self`.
+
+    ```python exec="true" source="above" session="tensor" result="python"
+    Tensor.manual_seed(42)
+    t = Tensor([1, 2, 3, 4])
+    print(t.multinomial(20, replacement=True).numpy())
+    ```
+    ```python exec="true" source="above" session="tensor" result="python"
+    Tensor.manual_seed(42)
+    t = Tensor([1, 2, 3, 4])
+    print(t.multinomial(3, replacement=False).numpy())
+    ```
+    """
+    assert 1 <= self.ndim <= 2 and num_samples > 0, f"{self.ndim=} must be 1 or 2 dim, {num_samples=} must be positive"
+    weight = self.unsqueeze(0) if self.ndim == 1 else self
+    assert replacement or num_samples <= weight.shape[1], "no replacement samples must not exceed population size"
+    if replacement or num_samples == 1:
+      cdf = (cw := weight.cumsum(1).float()) / cw[:, -1].unsqueeze(1)
+      unif_samples = type(self).rand(num_samples, cdf.shape[0], 1).to(self.device)  # type: ignore[attr-defined]
+      indices = (unif_samples.expand((-1, -1, cdf.shape[1])) >= cdf).sum(2).permute((1, 0))
+    else:
+      # Efraimidis-Spirakis
+      indices = (weight.rand_like(dtype=dtypes.float32).log2() / weight).topk(num_samples, dim=1)[1]
+    return (indices.squeeze(0) if self.ndim == 1 else indices).cast(dtypes.int32)
+
+  def dropout(self, p=0.5) -> Self:
+    """
+    Applies dropout to `self`.
+
+    NOTE: dropout is only applied when `TRAINING` is set (e.g. inside `Context(TRAINING=1)`).
+
+    - Paper: https://jmlr.org/papers/v15/srivastava14a.html
+
+    ```python exec="true" source="above" session="tensor" result="python"
+    Tensor.manual_seed(42)
+    t = Tensor.randn(2, 2)
+    with Context(TRAINING=1):
+      print(t.dropout().numpy())
+    ```
+    """
+    if not 0 <= p <= 1: raise ValueError(f"{p=} is out of range [0, 1]")
+    if not TRAINING or p == 0: return self
+    if p == 1: return self.const_like(0)
+    return (self.rand_like(dtype=dtypes.default_float, contiguous=False) >= p).contiguous().where(self, 0) / (1.0 - p)
+
+  def scaled_dot_product_attention(self, key:Self, value:Self, attn_mask:Self|None=None, dropout_p:float=0.0,
+                                   is_causal:bool=False, enable_gqa:bool=False) -> Self:
+    """
+    Computes scaled dot-product attention.
+    `self` is the query tensor, `key` is the key tensor, and `value` is the value tensor.
+
+    - Paper: https://arxiv.org/abs/1706.03762v7
+
+    ```python exec="true" source="above" session="tensor" result="python"
+    q = Tensor.randn(2, 4, 8)
+    k = Tensor.randn(2, 4, 8)
+    v = Tensor.randn(2, 4, 8)
+    print(q.scaled_dot_product_attention(k, v).numpy())
+    ```
+    """
+    # GQA: https://docs.pytorch.org/docs/stable/generated/torch.nn.functional.scaled_dot_product_attention.html
+    if enable_gqa:
+      key = key.repeat_interleave(int(self.shape[-3] // key.shape[-3]), dim=-3)
+      value = value.repeat_interleave(int(self.shape[-3] // value.shape[-3]), dim=-3)
+
+    q = self
+    qk = q.matmul(key.transpose(-2,-1), dtype=least_upper_dtype(q.dtype, key.dtype, dtypes.float32)) / math.sqrt(q.shape[-1])
+    # handle attention mask
+    if is_causal:
+      if attn_mask is not None: raise RuntimeError("cannot set attn_mask when is_causal=True")
+      attn_mask = qk.const_like(1).cast(dtypes.bool).tril()
+    if attn_mask is not None:
+      if attn_mask.dtype == dtypes.bool: attn_mask = attn_mask.where(0, -float("inf"))
+      qk = qk + attn_mask
+    return qk.cast(self.dtype).softmax(-1).dropout(dropout_p) @ value

tinygrad/mixin/reduce.py

@@ -1,8 +1,7 @@
-import string
-from typing import Self, Sequence, cast
+from typing import Self, Sequence
 from tinygrad.uop import Ops
 from tinygrad.dtype import DTypeLike, dtypes, sum_acc_dtype, to_dtype
-from tinygrad.helpers import argfix, argsort, make_tuple, merge_dicts
+from tinygrad.helpers import make_tuple
 from tinygrad.mixin.dtype import DTypeMixin
 from tinygrad.mixin.movement import MovementMixin
 
@@ -136,44 +135,3 @@ class ReduceMixin(DTypeMixin, MovementMixin):
     ```
     """
     return self.bool().prod(axis, keepdim)
-
-  @classmethod
-  def einsum(cls, formula:str, *operands:Self|Sequence[Self], dtype:DTypeLike|None=None) -> Self:
-    """
-    Sums the product of the elements of the input tensors according to a formula based on the Einstein summation convention.
-
-    See: https://pytorch.org/docs/stable/generated/torch.einsum.html
-
-    ```python exec="true" source="above" session="tensor" result="python"
-    x = Tensor([[1, 2], [3, 4]])
-    y = Tensor([[5, 6], [7, 8]])
-    print(Tensor.einsum("ij,ij->", x, y).numpy())
-    ```
-    """
-    xs, formula = list(argfix(*operands)), formula.replace(" ", "")
-    # expand ellipsis to letters, determine output
-    if "..." in formula:
-      ell, lhs = "".join(c for c in string.ascii_letters if c not in formula), (formula.split("->") + [""])[0]
-      ell_n = [max(0, x.ndim - len(s) + 3) if "..." in s else 0 for s, x in zip(lhs.split(","), xs)]
-      for i, (s, x) in enumerate(zip(inputs := lhs.split(","), xs)): inputs[i] = s.replace("...", ell[max(ell_n)-ell_n[i]:max(ell_n)])
-      lhs, auto = ",".join(inputs), "".join(sorted(c for c in lhs if lhs.count(c) == 1 and c.isalpha() and c not in ell))
-      formula = f"{lhs}->{formula.split('->')[1].replace('...', ell[:max(ell_n)]) if '->' in formula else ell[:max(ell_n)] + auto}"
-    lhs, rhs = formula.split("->") if "->" in formula else (formula, "".join(sorted(c for c in formula if formula.count(c)==1 and c.isalpha())))
-    inputs = lhs.split(",")
-    if len(xs) != len(inputs): raise ValueError(f"number of operands doesn't match, expected {len(inputs)}, got {len(xs)}")
-    # trace: take diagonal when letter repeats in single input
-    for i, (s, x) in enumerate(zip(inputs, xs)):
-      for c in set(s):
-        while s.count(c) > 1:
-          j, k, n = s.index(c), s.index(c, s.index(c)+1), cast(int, x.shape[s.index(c)])
-          perm = [d for d in range(x.ndim) if d not in (j,k)]+[j,k]
-          x = x.permute(perm).flatten(-2).pad(((0,0),)*(x.ndim-2)+((0,n),)).unflatten(-1,(n,n+1))[...,0] if x.ndim > 2 else x.diagonal()
-          s = s[:k] + s[k+1:]
-      inputs[i], xs[i] = s, x
-    # check sizes and build sorted alphabet
-    sz = merge_dicts([dict(zip(s, x.shape)) for s, x in zip(inputs, xs)])
-    alpha = sorted(sz)
-    # align all tensors to alphabet, multiply, sum non-output, permute to output order
-    xs = [x.permute(*[s.index(c) for c in sorted(s)]).reshape([sz[c] if c in s else 1 for c in alpha]).expand([sz[c] for c in alpha]) if s else x
-          for s, x in zip(inputs, xs)]
-    return xs[0].uprod(*xs[1:]).sum([i for i,c in enumerate(alpha) if c not in rhs], dtype=dtype).permute(argsort(argsort(list(rhs))))

tinygrad/schedule/rangeify.py

@@ -543,9 +543,6 @@ to_define_global = PatternMatcher([
   # remove device from local BUFFERIZE
   (UPat(Ops.STAGE, name="b"), lambda b: b.replace(arg=replace(b.arg, device=None))),
 
-  # remove UNIQUE/DEVICE to dedup CONST
-  (UPat(Ops.CONST, name="c"), lambda c: c.replace(src=()) if len(c.src) else None),
-
   # renumber the ranges starting with 0 so that kernel deduping works
   (UPat(Ops.RANGE, name="r"), renumber_range),
 ])

tinygrad/tensor.py

@@ -1,14 +1,13 @@
 # inspired by https://github.com/karpathy/micrograd/blob/master/micrograd/engine.py
 from __future__ import annotations
 import time, math, itertools, functools, sys, inspect, pathlib, hashlib, weakref
-from contextlib import ContextDecorator
-from typing import Any, Callable, ClassVar, Sequence, cast, get_args, ParamSpec, TypeVar, Generic, TYPE_CHECKING
+from typing import Any, Callable, Sequence, cast, get_args, ParamSpec, TypeVar, Generic, TYPE_CHECKING
 if TYPE_CHECKING: import numpy
-from tinygrad.dtype import DType, DTypeLike, dtypes, ConstType, least_upper_dtype, to_dtype
+from tinygrad.dtype import DType, DTypeLike, dtypes, ConstType, to_dtype
 from tinygrad.dtype import _from_np_dtype, _to_np_dtype, PyConst, Invalid
 from tinygrad.helpers import argfix, flatten, prod, all_int, round_up, getenv, fully_flatten, ceildiv, fetch, flat_to_grouped
 from tinygrad.helpers import resolve_pool_pads, IMAGE, FLOAT16, WINO, Metadata, TRACEMETA, is_numpy_ndarray, TracingKey, cpu_profile
-from tinygrad.helpers import suppress_finalizing, disable_gc
+from tinygrad.helpers import suppress_finalizing, disable_gc, TRAINING
 from tinygrad.uop.ops import UOp, Ops, sint, all_metadata, _index_to_concrete_int, Variable, _broadcast_shape
 from tinygrad.mixin.rand import RandMixin
 from tinygrad.schedule import create_linear_with_vars
@@ -59,19 +58,25 @@ def _apply_winograd_matrix(mat, t:Tensor, dims:int) -> Tensor:
   assert isinstance(ret, Tensor), "sum didn't return a Tensor"
   return ret
 
-class Tensor(RandMixin):
+# TODO: deprecate this, always use TRAINING
+class TensorMeta(type):
+  @property
+  def training(cls) -> bool: return bool(TRAINING.value)
+  @training.setter
+  def training(cls, mode:bool): TRAINING.value = int(mode)
+
+class Tensor(RandMixin, metaclass=TensorMeta):
   """
   A `Tensor` is a multi-dimensional matrix containing elements of a single data type.
 
   ```python exec="true" session="tensor"
-  from tinygrad import Tensor, dtypes, nn
+  from tinygrad import Tensor, dtypes, nn, Context
   import numpy as np
   import math
   np.set_printoptions(precision=4)
   ```
   """
   __slots__ = "uop", "is_param", "grad"
-  training: ClassVar[bool] = False
 
   def __init__(self, data:ConstType|bytes|list|tuple|UOp|'numpy.ndarray'|pathlib.Path|None,
                device:str|tuple|list|None=None, dtype:DTypeLike|None=None):
@@ -125,9 +130,9 @@ class Tensor(RandMixin):
   @suppress_finalizing
   def __del__(self): all_tensors.pop(weakref.ref(self), None)
 
-  def _apply_uop(self, fxn:Callable[..., UOp], *x:Tensor, extra_args=(), **kwargs) -> Tensor:
+  def _apply_uop(self, fxn:Callable[..., UOp], *x:Tensor, **kwargs) -> Tensor:
     srcs = (self,)+x
-    new_uop: UOp = fxn(*[t.uop for t in srcs], *extra_args, **kwargs)
+    new_uop: UOp = fxn(*[t.uop for t in srcs], **kwargs)
     if TRACEMETA >= 1 and (metadata:=_METADATA.get()) is not None: all_metadata[new_uop] = (metadata,)
     # directly create the Tensor
     ret = Tensor.__new__(Tensor)
@@ -136,34 +141,18 @@ class Tensor(RandMixin):
     all_tensors[weakref.ref(ret)] = None
     return ret
 
-  # alu and const_like are used by the mixins
+  # alu, _uop, _wrap_uop and const are used by the mixins
   def alu(self, op: Ops, *src: Tensor) -> Tensor: return self._apply_uop(lambda *u: u[0].alu(op, *u[1:]), *src)
   @property
   def _uop(self) -> UOp: return self.uop
   def _wrap_uop(self, u:UOp) -> Tensor: return Tensor(u)
-  def const_like(self, b:ConstType) -> Tensor: return Tensor(self.uop.const_like(b))
   @staticmethod
   def const(dtype:DType, b:ConstType|UOp) -> Tensor: return Tensor(UOp.const(dtype, b))
-  @staticmethod
-  def invalids(*shape, device:str|tuple[str, ...]|None=None, dtype:DTypeLike|None=None) -> Tensor:
-    """
-    Creates a tensor with the given shape, filled with Invalid.
-
-    This is an alternative to Tensor.empty when you want an "anonymous" buffer.
-
-    Eventually Tensor.empty will be replaced by this.
-    """
-    return Tensor(UOp.invalids(argfix(*shape), dtype, device))
 
   def is_param_(self, is_param:bool=True) -> Tensor:
     self.is_param = is_param
     return self
 
-  class train(ContextDecorator):
-    def __init__(self, mode:bool = True): self.mode = mode
-    def __enter__(self): self.prev, Tensor.training = Tensor.training, self.mode
-    def __exit__(self, exc_type, exc_value, traceback): Tensor.training = self.prev
-
   def __repr__(self):
     ld = self.uop
     ld_repr = f"<UOp {ld.device} {ld.shape} {str(ld.dtype)[7:]}>"
@@ -275,6 +264,7 @@ class Tensor(RandMixin):
     x = self.cast(self.dtype.base).contiguous()
     if self.uop.device is None or isinstance(self.device, tuple): x = x.clone("CPU")
     return cast(Buffer, x.realize().uop.buffer).ensure_allocated()
+
   def _data(self) -> memoryview: return self._buffer().as_memoryview()
 
   def data(self) -> memoryview:
@@ -290,19 +280,7 @@ class Tensor(RandMixin):
     assert all_int(self.shape), f"no data if shape is symbolic, {self.shape=}"
     assert self.dtype.base.fmt is not None, f"no fmt dtype for {self.dtype.base}"
     assert self.dtype.base.fmt != "e" or sys.version_info >= (3, 12)
-    return self._buffer().as_memoryview().cast(self.dtype.base.fmt, self.shape)
-
-  def item(self) -> PyConst:
-    """
-    Returns the value of this tensor as a standard Python number.
-
-    ```python exec="true" source="above" session="tensor" result="python"
-    t = Tensor(42)
-    print(t.item())
-    ```
-    """
-    assert self.numel() == 1, "must have one element for item"
-    return self.data()[(0,) * len(self.shape)]
+    return self._data().cast(self.dtype.base.fmt, self.shape)
 
   # NOTE: list[Any] because return type is recursive (list[list[...]] for higher dimensions)
   def tolist(self) -> PyConst|list[Any]:
@@ -464,13 +442,6 @@ class Tensor(RandMixin):
     """
     return Tensor(UOp.empty(argfix(*shape), dtype, device))
 
-  def empty_like(self, dtype:DTypeLike|None=None, device:str|tuple[str, ...]|None=None) -> Tensor:
-    """
-    Creates an empty tensor with the same shape as `self`.
-    If `dtype` is not specified, the dtype of `self` is used.
-    """
-    return Tensor(self.uop.empty_like(dtype, device))
-
   @staticmethod
   def from_blob(ptr:int, shape:tuple[int, ...], **kwargs) -> Tensor:
     """
@@ -533,261 +504,6 @@ class Tensor(RandMixin):
     high = counter[1:2] - (num >> 32) - (counter[0] < (num & 0xffffffff))
     return Tensor._device_seeds[device], low.cat(high)
 
-  @staticmethod
-  def rand(*shape, device:str|None=None, dtype:DTypeLike|None=None, contiguous:bool=True) -> Tensor:
-    """
-    Creates a tensor with the given shape, filled with random values from a uniform distribution over the interval `[0, 1)`.
-
-    You can pass in `dtype` and `device` keyword arguments to control the data type and device of the tensor.
-
-    ```python exec="true" source="above" session="tensor" result="python"
-    Tensor.manual_seed(42)
-    t = Tensor.rand(2, 3)
-    print(t.numpy())
-    ```
-    """
-    dt = to_dtype(dtype or dtypes.default_float)
-    if not dtypes.is_float(dt): raise ValueError(f"rand only supports float dtypes, got {dt}")
-    if not all_int(shape:=argfix(*shape)) or not all(s >= 0 for s in shape): raise ValueError(f"invalid input {shape=}")
-    if device is not None and not isinstance(device, str): raise ValueError(f"rand only supports single device, got {device=}")
-    device = cast(str, canonicalize_device(device))
-    key, counter = Tensor._next_counter(device, ceildiv(prod(shape) * dt.itemsize, 4))
-    return Tensor._rand(key, counter, shape, dt, contiguous=contiguous)
-
-  # ***** creation helper functions *****
-
-  def _multi_like(self, fxn:Callable[[tuple[sint, ...], str|None], Tensor]) -> Tensor:
-    assert isinstance(self.device, tuple), f"_multi_like needs a multi device tensor, got {self.device}"
-    if self.uop.axis is None: return fxn(self.shape, None).shard(self.device)
-    stacked = UOp.mstack(*[fxn(self.uop.shard_shape, d).uop for d in self.device])
-    return Tensor(stacked.multi(self.uop.axis))
-
-  def full_like(self, fill_value:ConstType, dtype=None, device=None) -> Tensor:
-    """
-    Creates a tensor with the same shape as `self`, filled with the given value.
-    If `dtype` is not specified, the dtype of `self` is used.
-
-    You can pass in the `device` keyword argument to control device of the tensor.
-
-    ```python exec="true" source="above" session="tensor" result="python"
-    t = Tensor.ones(2, 3)
-    print(Tensor.full_like(t, 42).numpy())
-    ```
-    """
-    if isinstance(self.device, tuple):
-      if device is not None: raise RuntimeError("cannot specify `device` on `*_like` of a multi device tensor")
-      return self._multi_like(lambda shape, dev: Tensor.full(shape, fill_value, dtype=dtype or self.dtype, device=dev))
-    return Tensor.full(self.shape, fill_value, dtype=dtype or self.dtype, device=self.device if device is None else device)
-
-  def rand_like(self, **kwargs) -> Tensor:
-    """
-    Creates a tensor with the same shape and sharding as `self`, filled with random values from a uniform distribution over the interval `[0, 1)`.
-
-    You can pass in `dtype` and `device` keyword arguments to control the data type and device of the tensor.
-    Additionally, all other keyword arguments are passed to the constructor of the tensor.
-
-    ```python exec="true" source="above" session="tensor" result="python"
-    t = Tensor.ones(2, 3)
-    print(Tensor.rand_like(t).numpy())
-    ```
-    """
-    if isinstance(self.device, tuple):
-      if kwargs.pop("device", None) is not None: raise RuntimeError("cannot specify `device` on `*_like` of a multi device tensor")
-      dtype = kwargs.pop("dtype", self.dtype)
-      return self._multi_like(lambda shape, dev: Tensor.rand(*shape, dtype=dtype, device=dev, **kwargs))
-    return Tensor.rand(*self.shape, device=kwargs.pop("device", self.device), dtype=kwargs.pop("dtype", self.dtype), **kwargs)
-
-  # ***** random functions *****
-
-  def randn_like(self, dtype:DTypeLike|None=None, **kwargs) -> Tensor:
-    """
-    Creates a tensor with the same shape and sharding as `self`, filled with random values from a normal distribution with mean 0 and variance 1.
-
-    You can pass in `dtype` and `device` keyword arguments to control the data type and device of the tensor.
-    Additionally, all other keyword arguments are passed to the constructor of the tensor.
-
-    ```python exec="true" source="above" session="tensor" result="python"
-    t = Tensor.ones(2, 3)
-    print(Tensor.randn_like(t).numpy())
-    ```
-    """
-    src = self.stack(self).rand_like(**{**kwargs, "dtype": dtypes.float32})
-    # https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Box%E2%80%93Muller_transform
-    return src[0].mul(2*math.pi).cos().mul((1 - src[1]).log().mul(-2).sqrt()).cast(dtype or self.dtype)
-
-  @staticmethod
-  def randn(*shape, dtype:DTypeLike|None=None, **kwargs) -> Tensor:
-    """
-    Creates a tensor with the given shape, filled with random values from a normal distribution with mean `0` and standard deviation `1`.
-    If `dtype` is not specified, the default type is used.
-
-    You can pass in the `device` keyword argument to control device of the tensor.
-    Additionally, all other keyword arguments are passed to the constructor of the tensor.
-
-    ```python exec="true" source="above" session="tensor" result="python"
-    Tensor.manual_seed(42)
-    print(Tensor.randn(2, 3).numpy())
-    ```
-    """
-    return Tensor.empty(*shape, **kwargs).randn_like(dtype=dtype)
-
-  @staticmethod
-  def randint(*shape, low=0, high=10, dtype=dtypes.int32, **kwargs) -> Tensor:
-    """
-    Creates a tensor with the given shape, filled with random integer values generated uniformly from the interval `[low, high)`.
-    Requires `low < high`. If `dtype` is not specified, the default type is used.
-
-    You can pass in the `device` keyword argument to control device of the tensor.
-    Additionally, all other keyword arguments are passed to the constructor of the tensor.
-
-    ```python exec="true" source="above" session="tensor" result="python"
-    Tensor.manual_seed(42)
-    print(Tensor.randint(2, 3, low=5, high=10).numpy())
-    ```
-    """
-    if not all_int([low, high]): raise TypeError(f"{low=} and {high=} must be integers")
-    if not dtypes.is_int(dtype := to_dtype(dtype)): raise TypeError(f"{dtype=} must be int")
-    if low >= high: raise ValueError(f"Tensor.randint requires low < high, got {low=}, {high=}")
-    return Tensor.uniform(*shape, low=low, high=high, dtype=dtype, **kwargs)
-
-  @staticmethod
-  def normal(*shape, mean=0.0, std=1.0, **kwargs) -> Tensor:
-    """
-    Creates a tensor with the given shape, filled with random values from a normal distribution with the given `mean` and standard deviation `std`.
-    Requires `std >= 0`.
-
-    You can pass in `dtype` and `device` keyword arguments to control the data type and device of the tensor.
-    Additionally, all other keyword arguments are passed to the constructor of the tensor.
-
-    ```python exec="true" source="above" session="tensor" result="python"
-    Tensor.manual_seed(42)
-    print(Tensor.normal(2, 3, mean=10, std=2).numpy())
-    ```
-    """
-    if std < 0: raise ValueError(f"Tensor.normal requires std >= 0, got {std=}")
-    return std * Tensor.randn(*shape, **kwargs) + mean
-
-  @staticmethod
-  def uniform(*shape, low=0.0, high=1.0, dtype:DTypeLike|None=None, **kwargs) -> Tensor:
-    """
-    Creates a tensor with the given shape, filled with random values from a uniform distribution over the interval `[low, high)`.
-    Requires `low < high`.
-
-    You can pass in `dtype` and `device` keyword arguments to control the data type and device of the tensor.
-    Additionally, all other keyword arguments are passed to the constructor of the tensor.
-
-    ```python exec="true" source="above" session="tensor" result="python"
-    Tensor.manual_seed(42)
-    print(Tensor.uniform(2, 3, low=2, high=10).numpy())
-    ```
-    """
-    if not all_int(shape:=argfix(*shape)) or not all(s >= 0 for s in shape): raise ValueError(f"invalid input {shape=}")
-    if low >= high: raise ValueError(f"Tensor.uniform requires low < high, got {low=}, {high=}")
-    return ((high-low) * Tensor.rand(*shape, **kwargs)).cast(dtype or dtypes.default_float) + low
-
-  @staticmethod
-  def scaled_uniform(*shape, **kwargs) -> Tensor:
-    """
-    Creates a tensor with the given shape, filled with random values from a uniform distribution
-    over the interval `[-prod(shape)**-0.5, prod(shape)**-0.5)`.
-
-    You can pass in `dtype` and `device` keyword arguments to control the data type and device of the tensor.
-    Additionally, all other keyword arguments are passed to the constructor of the tensor.
-
-    ```python exec="true" source="above" session="tensor" result="python"
-    Tensor.manual_seed(42)
-    print(Tensor.scaled_uniform(2, 3).numpy())
-    ```
-    """
-    return Tensor.uniform(*shape, low=-1.0, high=1.0, **kwargs).mul(prod(argfix(*shape))**-0.5)
-
-  @staticmethod
-  def glorot_uniform(*shape, **kwargs) -> Tensor:
-    """
-    <https://www.tensorflow.org/api_docs/python/tf/keras/initializers/GlorotUniform>
-
-    You can pass in `dtype` and `device` keyword arguments to control the data type and device of the tensor.
-    Additionally, all other keyword arguments are passed to the constructor of the tensor.
-
-    ```python exec="true" source="above" session="tensor" result="python"
-    Tensor.manual_seed(42)
-    print(Tensor.glorot_uniform(2, 3).numpy())
-    ```
-    """
-    bound = (6 / (argfix(*shape)[0]+prod(argfix(*shape)[1:]))) ** 0.5
-    return Tensor.uniform(*shape, low=-bound, high=bound, **kwargs)
-
-  @staticmethod
-  def kaiming_uniform(*shape, a:float = 0.01, **kwargs) -> Tensor:
-    """
-    <https://pytorch.org/docs/stable/_modules/torch/nn/init.html#kaiming_uniform_>
-
-    You can pass in `dtype` and `device` keyword arguments to control the data type and device of the tensor.
-    Additionally, all other keyword arguments are passed to the constructor of the tensor.
-
-    ```python exec="true" source="above" session="tensor" result="python"
-    Tensor.manual_seed(42)
-    print(Tensor.kaiming_uniform(2, 3).numpy())
-    ```
-    """
-    bound = (6 / (1 + a ** 2) / prod(argfix(*shape)[1:])) ** 0.5
-    return Tensor.uniform(*shape, low=-bound, high=bound, **kwargs)
-
-  @staticmethod
-  def kaiming_normal(*shape, a:float = 0.01, **kwargs) -> Tensor:
-    """
-    <https://pytorch.org/docs/stable/_modules/torch/nn/init.html#kaiming_normal_>
-
-    You can pass in `dtype` and `device` keyword arguments to control the data type and device of the tensor.
-    Additionally, all other keyword arguments are passed to the constructor of the tensor.
-
-    ```python exec="true" source="above" session="tensor" result="python"
-    Tensor.manual_seed(42)
-    print(Tensor.kaiming_normal(2, 3).numpy())
-    ```
-    """
-    std = (2 / (1 + a ** 2) / prod(argfix(*shape)[1:])) ** 0.5
-    return Tensor.normal(*shape, mean=0.0, std=std, **kwargs)
-
-  @staticmethod
-  def randperm(n:int, device=None, dtype=dtypes.int32, **kwargs) -> Tensor:
-    """
-    Returns a tensor with a random permutation of integers from `0` to `n-1`.
-
-    ```python exec="true" source="above" session="tensor" result="python"
-    Tensor.manual_seed(42)
-    print(Tensor.randperm(6).numpy())
-    ```
-    """
-    return Tensor.rand(n, device=device, **kwargs).argsort().cast(dtype)
-
-  def multinomial(self:Tensor, num_samples:int = 1, replacement:bool = False) -> Tensor:
-    """
-    Returns a tensor with `num_samples` indices sampled from a multinomial distribution weighted by `self`.
-
-    ```python exec="true" source="above" session="tensor" result="python"
-    Tensor.manual_seed(42)
-    t = Tensor([1, 2, 3, 4])
-    print(t.multinomial(20, replacement=True).numpy())
-    ```
-    ```python exec="true" source="above" session="tensor" result="python"
-    Tensor.manual_seed(42)
-    t = Tensor([1, 2, 3, 4])
-    print(t.multinomial(3, replacement=False).numpy())
-    ```
-    """
-    assert 1 <= self.ndim <= 2 and num_samples > 0, f"{self.ndim=} must be 1 or 2 dim, {num_samples=} must be positive"
-    weight = self.unsqueeze(0) if self.ndim == 1 else self
-    assert replacement or num_samples <= weight.shape[1], "no replacement samples must not exceed population size"
-    if replacement or num_samples == 1:
-      cdf = (cw := weight.cumsum(1).float()) / cw[:, -1].unsqueeze(1)
-      unif_samples = Tensor.rand(num_samples, cdf.shape[0], 1).to(self.device)
-      indices = (unif_samples.expand((-1, -1, cdf.shape[1])) >= cdf).sum(2).permute((1, 0))
-    else:
-      # Efraimidis–Spirakis
-      indices = (weight.rand_like(dtype=dtypes.float32).log2() / weight).topk(num_samples, dim=1)[1]
-    return (indices.squeeze(0) if self.ndim == 1 else indices).cast(dtypes.int32)
-
   # ***** toposort and backward pass *****
 
   def backward(self, gradient:Tensor|None=None) -> Tensor:
@@ -814,49 +530,9 @@ class Tensor(RandMixin):
 
   # ***** movement ops *****
 
-  def _mop(self, op:Ops, arg) -> Tensor: return self._apply_uop(UOp._mop, extra_args=(op,), arg=arg)
+  def _mop(self, op:Ops, arg) -> Tensor: return self._apply_uop(UOp._mop, op=op, arg=arg)
   def _rop(self, op:Ops, axis:tuple[int, ...]) -> Tensor: return self._apply_uop(UOp._rop, op=op, axis=axis)
 
-  def __getitem__(self, indices) -> Tensor:
-    """
-    Retrieves a sub-tensor using indexing.
-
-    Supported Index Types: `int | slice | Tensor | None | list | tuple | Ellipsis`
-
-    Examples:
-    ```python exec="true" source="above" session="tensor" result="python"
-    t = Tensor.arange(12).reshape(3, 4)
-    print(t.numpy())
-    ```
-
-    - Int Indexing: Select an element or sub-tensor using integers for each dimension.
-      ```python exec="true" source="above" session="tensor" result="python"
-      print(t[1, 2].numpy())
-      ```
-
-    - Slice Indexing: Select a range of elements using slice notation (`start:end:stride`).
-      ```python exec="true" source="above" session="tensor" result="python"
-      print(t[0:2, ::2].numpy())
-      ```
-
-    - Tensor Indexing: Use another tensor as indices for advanced indexing. Using `tuple` or `list` here also works.
-      ```python exec="true" source="above" session="tensor" result="python"
-      print(t[Tensor([2, 0, 1]), Tensor([1, 2, 3])].numpy())
-      ```
-
-    - `None` Indexing: Add a new dimension to the tensor.
-      ```python exec="true" source="above" session="tensor" result="python"
-      print(t[:, None].shape)
-      ```
-
-    NOTE: Out-of-bounds indexing results in a value of `0`.
-    ```python exec="true" source="above" session="tensor" result="python"
-    t = Tensor([1, 2, 3])
-    print(t[Tensor([4, 3, 2])].numpy())
-    ```
-    """
-    return super().__getitem__(indices)
-
   def __setitem__(self, indices, v:Tensor|PyConst|list|tuple) -> None:
     if isinstance(v, Tensor) and v.dtype != self.dtype: raise RuntimeError(f"setitem dtype mismatch: {self.dtype=} != {v.dtype=}")
     # raise if mutation would diverge from eager (allow only pure views of a realized buffer; exclude +=/-= RHS via v_uop/v_bw)
@@ -887,68 +563,6 @@ class Tensor(RandMixin):
   def __delitem__(self, indices) -> None:
     raise TypeError("Tensor does not support deleting items")
 
-  def masked_select(self, mask, size:int|None=None, fill_value:ConstType=0):
-    """
-    Selects elements from `self` based on the boolean `mask`.
-
-    With `size=None` (default), output length equals the number of `True` values (not jittable).
-    With `size=N`, output length is `N`, padded with `fill_value` or truncated (jittable).
-
-    ```python exec="true" source="above" session="tensor" result="python"
-    t = Tensor([[0, 1, 2], [3, 4, 5], [6, 7, 8]])
-    mask = Tensor([[True, False, True], [False, True, False], [False, False, True]])
-    print(t.numpy())
-    print(mask.numpy())
-    ```
-    ```python exec="true" source="above" session="tensor" result="python"
-    print(t.masked_select(mask).numpy())
-    ```
-    ```python exec="true" source="above" session="tensor" result="python"
-    print(t.masked_select(mask, size=6, fill_value=-1).numpy())
-    ```
-    """
-    if not dtypes.is_bool(mask.dtype): raise RuntimeError(f"masked_select expects bool mask tensor, got {mask.dtype}")
-    x, mask = self.flatten(), mask._broadcast_to(self.shape).flatten()
-    mask_cumsum = mask.cumsum()
-    if size is None:
-      counts = Tensor.zeros(mask_cumsum[-1].item() if mask.numel() else 0, dtype=dtypes.int32, buffer=False)
-      return x[counts.scatter(0, mask_cumsum, 1, reduce='add').cumsum()]
-    counts = Tensor.zeros(size, dtype=dtypes.int32, buffer=False).scatter(0, mask_cumsum, 1, reduce='add')
-    return (Tensor.arange(size) < mask.sum()).where(x[counts.cumsum()], fill_value).cast(self.dtype)
-
-  def nonzero(self, size:int|None=None, fill_value:ConstType=0) -> Tensor:
-    """
-    Returns the indices of the elements that are non-zero.
-
-    With `size=None` (default), output shape is `(n_nonzero, ndim)` (not jittable).
-    With `size=N`, output shape is `(N, ndim)`, padded with `fill_value` or truncated (jittable).
-
-    ```python exec="true" source="above" session="tensor" result="python"
-    t = Tensor([1, 0, 2, 0, 3])
-    print(t.numpy())
-    ```
-    ```python exec="true" source="above" session="tensor" result="python"
-    print(t.nonzero().numpy())
-    ```
-    ```python exec="true" source="above" session="tensor" result="python"
-    t = Tensor([[1, 0], [0, 2]])
-    print(t.numpy())
-    ```
-    ```python exec="true" source="above" session="tensor" result="python"
-    print(t.nonzero().numpy())
-    ```
-    ```python exec="true" source="above" session="tensor" result="python"
-    print(t.nonzero(size=3, fill_value=-1).numpy())
-    ```
-    """
-    if self.ndim == 0:
-      return Tensor.zeros(size if size is not None else int((self != 0).item()), 0, dtype=dtypes.int32, device=self.device)
-    mask = (self != 0).flatten()
-    indices = Tensor.stack(*[Tensor.arange(s).reshape(*[1]*i, s, *[1]*(self.ndim-i-1)).expand(self.shape).flatten()
-                             for i, s in enumerate(self.shape)], dim=-1)
-    return indices.masked_select(mask.unsqueeze(-1).expand(*mask.shape, self.ndim),
-                                 size=size*self.ndim if size is not None else None, fill_value=fill_value).reshape(-1, self.ndim)
-
   # ***** reduce ops *****
 
   def keccak(self, cfg:str|tuple[int, int]="sha3_256"):
@@ -1054,11 +668,11 @@ class Tensor(RandMixin):
 
     g = weight.permute(*range(len(weight.shape)-len(HW),len(weight.shape)), *range(len(weight.shape)-len(HW)))  # move HW to the front
 
-    # compute 6x6 winograd tiles: GgGt, BtdB
+    # compute 6x6 winograd tiles: GgGt, BtdB. contiguous so the transforms are materialized once
     # (HWI, groups * rcout, cin) -> (HWI, bs=1, groups, rcout, cin, tyx=(1,1))
-    gfactors = _apply_winograd_matrix(winograd_G, g, len(HW)).reshape(*HWI, 1, groups, rcout, cin, *([1]*len(tyx)))
+    gfactors = _apply_winograd_matrix(winograd_G, g, len(HW)).contiguous().reshape(*HWI, 1, groups, rcout, cin, *([1]*len(tyx)))
     # (HWI, bs, cin_, tyx) -> (HWI, bs, groups, 1 ,cin, *tyx)
-    dfactors = _apply_winograd_matrix(winograd_Bt, d, len(HW)).reshape(*HWI, bs, groups, 1, cin, *tyx)
+    dfactors = _apply_winograd_matrix(winograd_Bt, d, len(HW)).contiguous().reshape(*HWI, bs, groups, 1, cin, *tyx)
 
     # matmul; sum across cin: (HWI, bs, groups, rcout, *tyx); then HWI -> HWO: (HWO, bs, groups, rcout, *tyx)
     ret = _apply_winograd_matrix(winograd_At, (gfactors * dfactors).sum(axis=-1-len(HW), dtype=dtype), len(HW))
@@ -1105,14 +719,6 @@ class Tensor(RandMixin):
     if IMAGE: return self.image_dot(w, dtype)
     return super().dot(w, dtype)
 
-  # ***** unary ops *****
-
-  def contiguous(self, *args, **kwargs) -> Tensor:
-    """
-    Returns a contiguous tensor.
-    """
-    return self._apply_uop(UOp.contiguous, extra_args=args, **kwargs)
-
   # ***** broadcasted elementwise ops *****
 
   def where(self:Tensor, x:Tensor|ConstType|sint, y:Tensor|ConstType|sint) -> Tensor:
@@ -1172,80 +778,8 @@ class Tensor(RandMixin):
     fn = UOp(Ops.CUSTOM_FUNCTION, dtypes.void, src=(frame_pos.src[0], *[UOp.const(dtypes.int, s) for s in shape]), arg="encdec")
     return Tensor(out.uop.after(fn.call(*[s.uop for s in srcs], frame_pos)))
 
-  # ***** functional nn ops *****
-
-  def dropout(self, p=0.5) -> Tensor:
-    """
-    Applies dropout to `self`.
-
-    NOTE: dropout is only applied when `Tensor.training` is `True`.
-
-    - Paper: https://jmlr.org/papers/v15/srivastava14a.html
-
-    ```python exec="true" source="above" session="tensor" result="python"
-    Tensor.manual_seed(42)
-    t = Tensor.randn(2, 2)
-    with Tensor.train():
-      print(t.dropout().numpy())
-    ```
-    """
-    if not 0 <= p <= 1: raise ValueError(f"{p=} is out of range [0, 1]")
-    if not Tensor.training or p == 0: return self
-    if p == 1: return self.const_like(0)
-    return (Tensor.rand_like(self, dtype=dtypes.default_float, contiguous=False) >= p).contiguous().where(self, 0) / (1.0 - p)
-
-  def scaled_dot_product_attention(self, key:Tensor, value:Tensor, attn_mask:Tensor|None=None, dropout_p:float=0.0,
-                                   is_causal:bool=False, enable_gqa:bool=False) -> Tensor:
-    """
-    Computes scaled dot-product attention.
-    `self` is the query tensor, `key` is the key tensor, and `value` is the value tensor.
-
-    - Paper: https://arxiv.org/abs/1706.03762v7
-
-    ```python exec="true" source="above" session="tensor" result="python"
-    q = Tensor.randn(2, 4, 8)
-    k = Tensor.randn(2, 4, 8)
-    v = Tensor.randn(2, 4, 8)
-    print(q.scaled_dot_product_attention(k, v).numpy())
-    ```
-    """
-    # GQA: https://docs.pytorch.org/docs/stable/generated/torch.nn.functional.scaled_dot_product_attention.html
-    if enable_gqa:
-      key = key.repeat_interleave(int(self.shape[-3] // key.shape[-3]), dim=-3)
-      value = value.repeat_interleave(int(self.shape[-3] // value.shape[-3]), dim=-3)
-
-    q = self
-    qk = q.matmul(key.transpose(-2,-1), dtype=least_upper_dtype(q.dtype, key.dtype, dtypes.float32)) / math.sqrt(q.shape[-1])
-    # handle attention mask
-    if is_causal:
-      if attn_mask is not None: raise RuntimeError("cannot set attn_mask when is_causal=True")
-      attn_mask = qk.const_like(1).cast(dtypes.bool).tril()
-    if attn_mask is not None:
-      if attn_mask.dtype == dtypes.bool: attn_mask = attn_mask.where(0, -float("inf"))
-      qk = qk + attn_mask
-    return qk.cast(self.dtype).softmax(-1).dropout(dropout_p) @ value
-
   # ***** cast ops *****
 
-  def cast(self, dtype:DTypeLike) -> Tensor:
-    """
-    Casts `self` to the given `dtype`.
-
-    ```python exec="true" source="above" session="tensor" result="python"
-    t = Tensor([-1, 2.5, 3], dtype=dtypes.float)
-    print(t.dtype, t.numpy())
-    ```
-    ```python exec="true" source="above" session="tensor" result="python"
-    t = t.cast(dtypes.int32)
-    print(t.dtype, t.numpy())
-    ```
-    ```python exec="true" source="above" session="tensor" result="python"
-    t = t.cast(dtypes.uint8)
-    print(t.dtype, t.numpy())
-    ```
-    """
-    return self if self.dtype == (dt:=to_dtype(dtype)) else self._apply_uop(UOp.cast, dtype=dt)
-
   def bitcast(self, dtype:DTypeLike) -> Tensor:
     """
     Bitcasts `self` to the given `dtype` of the same itemsize.

tinygrad/uop/ops.py

@@ -84,8 +84,8 @@ def multirange_str(rngs:Iterable[UOp], color=False, pad=None) -> str:
 
 def shape_to_shape_arg(arg:tuple[sint, ...]) -> UOp:
   if len(arg) == 0: return UOp(Ops.STACK)
-  elif all_int(arg): return UOp.const(dtypes.weakint.vec(len(arg)), arg)
-  else: return UOp(Ops.STACK, dtypes.weakint.vec(len(arg)), tuple(UOp.const(dtypes.weakint, x) if isinstance(x, int) else x for x in arg))
+  elif len(arg) == 1: return UOp.const(dtypes.weakint, arg[0])
+  else: return UOp(Ops.STACK, dtypes.weakint, tuple(UOp.const(dtypes.weakint, x) if isinstance(x, int) else x for x in arg))
 
 def consumer_map_from_toposort(lst:Iterable[UOp]):
   ret: dict[UOp, dict[UOp, None]] = {}
@@ -305,10 +305,6 @@ class UOp(RandMixin, metaclass=UOpMetaClass):
       case Ops.MSTACK | Ops.MSELECT | Ops.DETACH | Ops.CONTIGUOUS | Ops.CONTIGUOUS_BACKWARD | Ops.AFTER | Ops.LOAD | \
            Ops.COPY | Ops.ALLREDUCE | Ops.STORE | Ops.END:
         return self.src[0]._shape
-      # REDUCE with empty axis is passthrough (lowered form)
-      case Ops.REDUCE if len(self.arg[1]) == 0:
-        # these can mismatch if there's a horizonal reduce
-        return (self.dtype.count,) if self.dtype.count > 1 else ()
 
       # TODO: disallow shape changing bitcast
       case Ops.BITCAST:
@@ -473,7 +469,7 @@ class UOp(RandMixin, metaclass=UOpMetaClass):
     if len(srcs) == 1 and isinstance(srcs[0], UOp): return srcs[0]
     return UOp(Ops.GROUP, dtypes.void, tuple([x for x in srcs if x is not None]))
   def vectorize(self, *srcs):
-    return UOp(Ops.STACK, self.dtype.vec(len(srcs)+1), (self,)+srcs)
+    return UOp(Ops.STACK, self.dtype, (self,)+srcs)
   def index(self, *srcs:UOp|None, ptr=False, **kwargs):
     return UOp(Ops.INDEX, kwargs.pop("dtype", self.dtype if ptr else self.dtype.base), (self,)+tuple([x for x in srcs if x is not None]), **kwargs)
   def __getitem__(self, idx):
@@ -560,12 +556,6 @@ class UOp(RandMixin, metaclass=UOpMetaClass):
       ret = UOp(Ops.CONST, dtype, arg=dtype.const(b), src=())
     return ret.reshape((1,)*len(shape)).expand(shape) if shape is not None and shape != () and ret.shape != shape else ret
   @staticmethod
-  def invalids(shape:tuple[sint, ...]|None=None, dtype:DTypeLike|None=None, device:str|tuple[str, ...]|None=None, unique=True) -> UOp:
-    dt = to_dtype(dtype) if dtype is not None else dtypes.from_py(Invalid)
-    ret = UOp(Ops.CONST, dt, arg=dt.const(Invalid),
-              src=(UOp.unique(None if unique is True else unique), UOp(Ops.DEVICE, arg=canonicalize_device(device))))
-    return ret.reshape((1,)*len(shape)).expand(shape) if shape is not None and ret.shape != shape else ret
-  @staticmethod
   def range(end:sint, axis_id, axis_type=AxisType.LOOP, *arg, dtype=dtypes.weakint, src=(), **kwargs):
     return UOp(Ops.RANGE, dtype=dtype, src=(sint_to_uop(end, dtype),)+src, arg=(axis_id, axis_type)+arg, **kwargs)
   @staticmethod
@@ -797,7 +787,7 @@ class UOp(RandMixin, metaclass=UOpMetaClass):
     if self.op in {Ops.INDEX, Ops.CAST, Ops.AFTER, Ops.REDUCE, Ops.GEP, Ops.STORE, Ops.MSTACK, Ops.MSELECT}:
       return self.src[0].addrspace
     if self.op in GroupOp.Movement: return self.src[0].addrspace
-    if self.op in {Ops.STACK, Ops.PTRCAT, Ops.WMMA} or self.op in GroupOp.Elementwise:
+    if self.op in {Ops.STACK, Ops.WMMA} or self.op in GroupOp.Elementwise:
       ad = [x.addrspace for x in self.src if x.addrspace is not None]
       if not len(ad) or not all_same(ad): return None
       return ad[0]
@@ -1064,9 +1054,9 @@ class UOp(RandMixin, metaclass=UOpMetaClass):
       ret = UOp(Ops.BUFFER, dtype.ptr(prod(shape), addrspace), src=(shape_to_shape_arg(buf_shape),), arg=ParamArg(slot, addrspace=addrspace))
     if len(shape) > 1: ret = ret.reshape(shape + ((dtype.count,) if addrspace in (AddrSpace.LOCAL, AddrSpace.REG) and dtype.count > 1 else ()))
     return ret
-  def placeholder_like(self, slot:int):
+  def placeholder_like(self, slot:int, addrspace=AddrSpace.GLOBAL):
     assert all_int(self.shape), "no placeholder-like on symbolic shape"
-    return UOp.placeholder(self.max_shard_shape, self.dtype, slot)
+    return UOp.placeholder(self.max_shard_shape, self.dtype, slot, addrspace)
 
   # set is store+end+after
   def set(self:UOp, val:UOp|ConstType, end:UOp|tuple[UOp, ...]|list[UOp]=()) -> UOp:
@@ -1196,8 +1186,9 @@ python_alu: dict[Ops, Callable]  = {
   Ops.MULACC: lambda x,y,z: (x*y)+z, Ops.WHERE: lambda x,y,z: y if x else z, Ops.CMPEQ: operator.eq}
 
 def exec_alu(op:Ops, dtype:DType, operands, truncate_output=True):
-  if dtype.count > 1:
-    return tuple([exec_alu(op, dtype.scalar(), [x[i] if isinstance(x, tuple) else x for x in operands]) for i in range(dtype.count)])
+  if any(isinstance(x, tuple) for x in operands):
+    count = max(len(x) for x in operands if isinstance(x, tuple))
+    return tuple([exec_alu(op, dtype.scalar(), [x[i] if isinstance(x, tuple) else x for x in operands]) for i in range(count)])
   if dtype==dtypes.weakint and op in GroupOp.Binary and Invalid in operands: return Invalid
   alu = python_alu[op](*operands)
   return truncate.get(dtype, lambda x: x)(alu) if truncate_output else alu
@@ -1678,6 +1669,8 @@ pm_lower_index_dtype = PatternMatcher([
     lambda var,val: var.bind(val).cast(dtypes.weakint)),
   # remove hanging casts
   (UPat(Ops.INDEX, src=(UPat.var("buf"), UPat.var("idx", dtypes.ints).cast()),), lambda buf,idx: buf.index(idx, ptr=True)),
+  (UPat(Ops.SHRINK, src=(UPat.var("buf"), UPat.var("idx", dtypes.ints).cast(), UPat.var("slen", dtypes.ints).cast(),), name="shrink"),
+   lambda shrink,buf,idx,slen: shrink.replace(src=(buf,idx,slen))),
   (UPat(Ops.INDEX, src=(UPat.var("buf"), UPat.var("gate").where(UPat.var("idx", dtypes.ints).cast(), UPat(Ops.CONST, arg=Invalid)))),
    lambda buf,idx,gate: buf.index(gate.where(idx, idx.const_like(Invalid)), ptr=True)),
   # remove hanging casts for images

tinygrad/uop/render.py

@@ -1,5 +1,5 @@
 from typing import cast
-from tinygrad.dtype import dtypes, Invalid
+from tinygrad.dtype import dtypes
 from tinygrad.uop import Ops, GroupOp
 from tinygrad.uop.ops import UOp, PatternMatcher, UPat, multirange_str, range_str, consumer_map_from_toposort
 from tinygrad.helpers import strip_parens
@@ -77,8 +77,6 @@ def render_marg(ctx,x:UOp):
 sugar = {Ops.SINK, Ops.END, Ops.STORE, Ops.LOAD, Ops.UNIQUE, Ops.SQRT, Ops.INDEX, Ops.REDUCE, Ops.AFTER, Ops.THREEFRY,
          Ops.WHERE, Ops.RECIPROCAL, Ops.EXP2, Ops.LOG2, Ops.SIN, Ops.CONTIGUOUS, Ops.BARRIER, Ops.DETACH}
 pm_pyrender_extra = PatternMatcher([
-  (UPat(Ops.CONST, src=(UPat(Ops.UNIQUE, name="u"), UPat(Ops.DEVICE, name="d")), arg=Invalid, name="x"),
-   lambda x,u,d: f"UOp.invalids(dtype={x.dtype}, device={repr(d.arg)}, unique={u.arg})"),
   (UPat(Ops.CONST, src=(), name="x"), lambda x: f"UOp.const({x.dtype}, {x.arg})"),
   (UPat((Ops.CAST, Ops.BITCAST), name="x"), lambda ctx,x: f"{ctx[x.src[0]]}.{x.op.name.lower()}({x.dtype})"),
   (UPat(Ops.SPECIAL, src=(UPat(Ops.CONST),), name="x"), lambda x: f"UOp.special({x.src[0].arg}, {repr(x.arg)}, dtype={x.dtype})"),

tinygrad/uop/spec.py

@@ -126,9 +126,6 @@ spec_tensor = PatternMatcher([
   (UPat(Ops.UNIQUE, dtypes.void, ()), lambda: True),
   (UPat(Ops.LUNIQUE, dtypes.void, ()), lambda: True),
 
-  # CONST with a UNIQUE and DEVICE
-  (UPat(Ops.CONST, src=(UPat((Ops.UNIQUE, Ops.LUNIQUE)), UPat(Ops.DEVICE)), name="c"), lambda c: c.arg is Invalid),
-
   # BUFFER
   (UPat(Ops.BUFFER, src=(UPat((Ops.UNIQUE, Ops.LUNIQUE)), UPat(Ops.DEVICE)), name="buf"),
    lambda buf: isinstance(buf.arg, int) and isinstance(buf.dtype, DType)),
@@ -152,8 +149,7 @@ spec_tensor = PatternMatcher([
 
   # movement ops
   (UPat((Ops.RESHAPE, Ops.EXPAND), src=(UPat(), UPat())), lambda: True),
-  (UPat((Ops.PAD, Ops.SHRINK), src=(UPat(), UPat(), UPat()), name="x"),
-   lambda x: x.src[1].dtype.count == x.src[2].dtype.count),
+  (UPat((Ops.PAD, Ops.SHRINK), src=(UPat(), UPat(), UPat()), name="x"), lambda x: x.src[1].shape == x.src[2].shape),
   (UPat((Ops.PERMUTE, Ops.FLIP), name="mv", src=(UPat(),)), lambda mv: isinstance(mv.arg, tuple)),
 
   # REDUCE has arg=(op, axis_tuple), src[1:] are ranges after lowering
@@ -196,8 +192,8 @@ spec_program = PatternMatcher([
   # no more of these in programs
   (UPat(Ops.GEP), lambda: False),
 
-  # weakint is not allowed in programs
-  (UPat(GroupOp.All, dtypes.weakint), lambda: False),
+  # weakint is not allowed in programs, except on CONST and STACK
+  (UPat(GroupOp.All-{Ops.CONST,Ops.STACK}, dtypes.weakint), lambda: False),
 
   # allow special SHRINK
   (UPat(Ops.SHRINK, src=(UPat((Ops.PARAM, Ops.BUFFER, Ops.AFTER)), UPat(), UPat(Ops.CONST))), lambda: True),

tinygrad/viz/serve.py

@@ -121,7 +121,6 @@ def uop_to_json(data:VizData, x:UOp) -> dict[int, dict]:
   for u in (toposort:=x.toposort()):
     # always exclude DEVICE/CONST/UNIQUE
     if u.op in {Ops.DEVICE, Ops.CONST, Ops.UNIQUE, Ops.LUNIQUE} and u is not x: excluded.add(u)
-    if u.op is Ops.CONST and len(u.src) and u.src[0].op in {Ops.UNIQUE, Ops.LUNIQUE}: excluded.remove(u)
     if u.op is Ops.STACK and len(u.src) == 0: excluded.add(u)
     # exclude RESHAPE/EXPAND that only serve to broadcast a CONST
     if u.op in {Ops.RESHAPE, Ops.EXPAND} and len(u.src) >= 1 and u.src[0] in excluded and u is not x: excluded.add(u)